„      -— >-.-==:=s^^ 


PRINCETON.   N. 


®                               Part  of  the  ^ 

I  ADDISON  ALFLXANDER  LIBRA IIT  ^ 

|]                   wliioh  was  presented  by  /| 

l^              MESSiis.  R.  L.  AND  A.  Rtitabt.  (I 

^c  «c^      --.^«w^        ^^^^         '^^  '■"Sirtiii'OC<^^i>Q^ 

P26  1854    ^ 
Palmer,    William,    1803-1885. 
Compendious    ecclesiastical 
history 


COMPENDIOUS 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY, 


FROM   THK 


Earliest  |^ri0fe  t0  t|e  ^mmt  %mt 


REV.  WILLIAM  PALMER,  M.A., 

OF  ■WOEOKSTER   COLLEGE,   OXFOEP,   AUTHOR   OF   "  ORIGINES   LITtTEGIOiB, 
ETC.,    ETC. 


WITH    A     SERIES     OF     QUESTIONS,    ADAPTING     THE     WORK    FOR 
PAROCHIAL    INSTRUCTION. 


SEVENTH  S    D    I    T    I    O    H . 


i^to  |0rli: 

STANFORD    AND    SWORDS^ 

r,87,    BE  0  AD  WAY. 


^  1854. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  Year  lS4i 

By  swords,  STANFORD  k  CO. 

in  the  Clerks  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Soutliern  Disfict  ol )        York 


-^^ 


PREFACE. 


It  is  strange  that  a  work  like  this  should  have  been 
so  long  wanting  in  English  literature.  Rich  as  our  lan- 
guage is  in  history,  it  possesses,  as  yet,  no  tolerable  history 
of  the  Church  of  God.  The  scholar  can  in  a  degree 
make  up  this  want  by  a  resort  to  other  sources :  but 
those  whose  reading  is  confined  to  their  native  language, 
and  those  v^^hose  little  leisure  affords  no  time  for  re- 
search, or  the  study  of  bulky  works,  have  had  nothing 
really  worth  attention,  on  this  subject,  within  their 
reach. 

Dry  abridgments  or  still  drier  compends,  crowding 
the  memory  with  names  and  dates,  and  little  else,  are 
not  what  is  needed  foi*  general  information  on  the  most 
interesting  of  all  topics  that  can  occupy  the   attention 

of  a    thinking  man the   rise    and   progress  of  the 

society  of  which  God  is  the  Head,  souls  bought  and 
washed  witli  the  most  precious  blood  of  Christ  the 
members,  and  eternity  the  exclusive  end  and  aim.  The 
existence  of  such  a  societv  amonji  men,  its  continuance, 


PREFACE. 


its  propagation,  and  its  more  or  less  visible  success,  are 
facts,  that  taken  in  connection  with  its  claims,  have  a 
direct  and  fearfully  important  interest  for  every  mem- 
ber of  the  human  family.  It  is  with  reference  to  that 
interest  that  they  ought  to  be  treated,  at  least  for  popular 
use.  Catalogues  of  heresies,  maps  of  the  extension 
and  contraction  of  Christendom  in  successive  ages,  and 
schemes  of  controversies  that  have  raged  and  waned, 
all  useful  in  their  way,  are  of  little  use  to  the  man  w^ho 
is  seeking  after  evidence  of  the  accompHshment  of  the 
ends  for  v/hich  the  Son  of  God  assumed  our  nature, 
and  when  He  had  ascended  to  the  right  hand  of  the 
Majesty  on  high,  sent  forth  the  promise  of  His  Father 
upon  those  whom  He  had  sent  into  the  v/orld  as  He 
Himself  was  sent.  The  eiTectual  working  of  Him 
who,  in  the  fulness  of  the  power  an.d  wisdom  of 
the  Godhead,  dwells  invisibly  in  the  visible  body 
that  he  organised  and  animates,  is  not  to  be  learned 
from  the  weary  and  disgustful  annals  of  contests  be- 
tween rival  hierarchies,  and  intrigues  of  ecclesiastics 
with  or  against  the  civil  power ;  still  less  from  the  re- 
volting exhibition  of  human  frailty  and  perversity  con- 
taminating the  provisions  of  infinite  Love  and  Wisdom, 
an  exhibition  necessarily  prominent  in  the  chronicles  of 
the  Church,  but  most  unnecessary  to  any  true  and  ade- 
quate estimate  of  its  real  efficiency.  All  analogy  and 
all  experience  bid  us  look  for  that  efficiency  in  unob- 
trusive quietness  and  seclusion.  "  The  works  of  the 
flesh  are  manifest,"  and  accordingly  attract,  wherever 
sinful  man  w^orks  out  the  designs  of  GOD,  the  super- 
ficial observer's  gaze.  "  The  fruits  of  the  Spirit,"  mean 
while,  which  are  the  tests  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  Sa- 
viour's pVomise  to  be  ever  with  His  body,  lie  hidden  be 
neath   the    surface    of  society,  and  must  be  diligently 


PREFACE.  Vll, 

sought  for,  and  painfully  dragged  forth  to  view,  before 
their  evidence  can  be  appreciated.  The  many  whom 
the  means  of  God's  providing  have  silently  nurtured 
up  in  faith  and  holiness  have  passed  to  their  reward 
without  leaving  a  trace  behind  on  the  page  of  history. 
The  few  who  stand  there  recorded  as  exceptions  from 
the  mass  of  brawling  strife  and  base  ambition  have 
been  drawn  from  among  their  fellows  by  the  demands 
of  duty,  growing  out  of  official  station  or  extraordinary 
endowments.  Such  must  always  be  the  minority  in  the 
records  of  the  Church  ;  and  it  is  as  strange  as  lamenta- 
ble that  most  of  its  historians  seem  to  have  lost  sight  of 
a  truth  so  obvious,  and  while  they  either  gloat  or  rave 
on  the  corruption  of  the  clergy  and  the  vile  degeneracy 
of  the  laity,  forget  that  a  similar  mode  of  estimation 
would  go  far  toward  the  reduction  of  the  past  to  one 
vast  blot,  and  the  banishment  of  virtue,  peace  and  hap- 
piness from  memory  or  belief. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  on  a  different  plan.  Its 
truly  learned  and  sound-minded  author  has  set  him- 
self honestly  to  seek  out  the  results  of  the  system  de- 
vised by  heavenly  Wisdom  and  set  in  operation  by 
God  Himself,  v/hen  He  dwelt  among  us.  He  does  not 
puzzle  himself  and  his  reader  with  an  attempt  at  a 
"  pragmatical"*  investigation  of  the  human  motives 
and  propensities  that  have  carried  on,  while  they  seemed 
to  thwart  and  vitiate,  the  divine  counsels  for  man's  sal- 
vation. Still  less  does  he  stoop  to  flatter  the  poor  pride 
of  human  reason  by  lowering  a  narrative  of  God's 
doings  with  and  in  His  Church  to  the  tone  of  secular 
history,  and  making  all  plain  and  easy  for  the  most  un- 
spiritual  comprehension.  He  writes  as  a  believer  of 
the  facts  that  he  narrates  ;  but  not  a  believer  without 

*  Sre  Mosheim'a  Preface 


VUl  PREFACE. 

investigation.  He  writes  as  one  whose  own  belief 
makes  him  in  earnest  with  his  reader,  and  in  conse- 
quence leaves  the  impression  of  reality  on  the  mind. 
Convinced  that  God  did  indeed  found  His  Church  up- 
on a  rock,  immoveable  and  unconquerable,  he  looks  for 
it,  without  fear  or  shrinking,  amid  the  worst  tem- 
pests of  controversial  strife  or  secular  oppression,  and 
under  the  deepest  mists  of  ignorance  and  error,  and 
not  only  finds  it,  signalized  by  its  unvarying  tokens  of 
peace,  holiness  and  joy,  but  makes  it  obvious  to  others. 
We  see,  Vvith  him,  that  though  times  have  changed,  and 
manners  varied,  the  word  and  promises  of  God  have 
endured  unchanged  and  their  accomplishment  has  gone 
on  invariably. 

In  this  respect,  Mr.  Palmer's  design  is  tlio  same  with 
that  of  the  pious  Milner.  But,  beside  its  greater  com- 
pendiousness,  so  much  better  suited  for  popular  use, 
this  work  has  the  advantage  of  much  better  execution. 
The  decided  bias  which  so  often  sv^'ays  the  judgment 
of  Milner  is  no  where  discoverable  in  Mr.  Palmer. 
The  scriptural  catalogue  of  "  fruits  of  the  Spirit"  is  his 
test  of  that  Spirit's  presence,  not  any  human  scheme  of 
doctrine.  The  bond  of  union  by  which  he  traces  Chris- 
tian faith  and  holiness  up  to  their  source  in  Christ,  is  the 
real  and  tangible  bond  of  ordinances  and  institutions, 
not  the  figmentary  connection  of  agreement  in  certain 
arbitrary  views.  He  is  content  to  find  the  fulfihnent  of 
the  promise  wherever  it  pleased  the  Giver  to  impart  it, 
without  questioning  His  ability  or  disposition  to  raise 
up  burning  and  shining  lights  even  in  the  midst  of  dark- 
ness, and  perpetuate  vital  heat  even  in  a  body  soiel^ 
diseased  and  maimed. 

A  great  degree  of  accuracy  in  general  outline,  and  in 
minute  detail  wherever  that  is  given,  is  another  admira- 


PREFACE. 


ble  characteristic  of  Mr.  Palmer's  work.  It  has  been  in- 
creased, perhaps,  by  the  correction  of  one  or  two  slips 
of  a  hasty  pen,  in  this  edition ;  and  the  minute  differ- 
ences, of  statement  or  opinion,  in  some  of  the  editor's 
additional  notes,  will  show  how  thoroughly  he  shared 
in  the  authors  anxiety  to  be  really  useful — an  end  to  be 
attained,  in  a  work  like  this,  only  by  the  most  scrupu- 
lous adherence  to  truth.  If  error  as  to  fact  be  found 
in  the  book  now  presented  to  the  reader,  it  has  escaped 
not  only  the  attention  of  the  learned  and  indefatigable 
author,  but  the  close  examination  of  his  humble  and 
erateful  fellow  labourer, 

W.  R.  W. 
Baltimore,  December  llth,  1840. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Pace 
Introduction ...         1 

CHAPTER  II. 
On  the  early  Progress  of  Christianity,  a.d.  30-320.  ...  •> 

CHAPTER  III. 
Faith  of  the  Church,  a.d.  30-320.        ...  .        .        .        lO 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Fruits  of  Faith,  exemplified  in  the  Martyrs,  a.d.  30-320.  -        -        13 

CHAPTER  V. 
Fruits  of  Faith,  exemplified  in  the  Lives  of  Christians,  a.d.  30-320.  2JI 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Communion,  Rites,  and  Discipline,  a.d.  30-320.  •        -        -        •        24 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Faith  of  the  Church  defended  by  the  six  oecumenical  Synods, 

A.D.  320-6S0. 34 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Fruits  of  Faith,  exemplified  in  the  Saints  and  Martyrs,  a.d.  320-680.        48 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Unity  and  Discipline  of  the  Church,  a.d.  320-680.       -       -       -       -        63 

CHAPTER  X. 
Rise  of  Abuses  and  Corruptions,  a.d.  320-680.  ....        68 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Progress  of  Christianity,  a.d.  680-1054. .14 

CHAPTER  XII 
Faith  of  the  Church,  a.d.  6S0-1054.  .....  77 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Fruitsof  Faith,  A.D.  680-/ 054.    -        -       -  -       .       •       -       8J 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  XIV. 


Abuses  and  Superstitions,  a.d.  6S0-1054.     .... 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Divisions  of  the  eastern  and  western  Churches,  a.d.  6S0-1054. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Progress-of  Christianity,  A.D.  1054-1517.    • 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Faith  of  the  Church,  aj).  1054-1517. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Fruits  of  Faith,  a.d.  1054-1517. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
The  eastern  Church,  A.D.  1054-1517. 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Abuses  and  Corruptions,  a.d.  1054-1517.     - 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
The  foreign  Reformation,  a.d.  1517-1S39. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
The  British  Churches,  a.d.  1530-1S39. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
Fruits  of  Faith  in  the  British  Churches,  a.d.  1530-1839. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
The  Roman  Churches,  a.d.  1517-1839. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
Fruits  of  Faith  in  the  Roman  Churches,  a.d.  1530-1660. 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
The  oriental  Churches,  a.d.  1517-1839. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
The  Rise  and  Progress  of  Infidelity. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Conclusion 


Index 

Explanation  of  difficult  Words. 


Paere 
100 


104 


^^'^^OPERTV  or  '-^ 


A  COMPENDIOUS  H  S  9  L  0  6 1 S  S:  Lf 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION 


The  history  of  the  world  impresses  the  reflecting  mind 
with  the  universal  tendency  of  human  institutions  to  decay 
and  dissolution.  Whether  we  contemplate  the  fate  of  man 
himself,  or  of  illustrious  empires  raised  by  virtue,  cemented 
by  wisdom",  but  destroyed  by  luxury  and  sin,  we  trace  in  all 
the  operation  of  that  sentence  of  death  which  once  passed  on 
all  men,  and  to  which  all  that  is  merely  human  must  bow. 

But  in  the  history  of  the  Church  we  view  not  only  the 
working  of ^  the  law  of  death,  but  the  counteracting  tendency 
of  the  Spirit  of  life,  sustaining  man  amidst  his  infirmities, 
elevating  him  above  all  that  is  carnal  and  terrestrial,  and  im- 
pressing on  his  actions  and  his  destinies  the  stamp  of  eternity. 
Empires,  superstitions,  and  philosophies,  have  faded  away, 
but  true  religion  continues  always  to  exist ;  and  as  it  came  in 
the  beginning  from  above,  so  at  the  end  of  all  things  it  shall 
return  thither  again.  The  patriarchs  and  the  prophets,  the 
law  and  the  gospel,  preached  to  mankind  the  same  religion, 
which  was  expanded  and  developed  as  ihe  fullness  of  time 
drev  on.  We  now  behold  the  fulfilment  of  what  the  patri- 
archs desired  to  see ;  we  enjoy  the  reality  of  those  things 
which  the  law  of  Moses  foreshadowed;  we  worship  the  God 
of  Abel  and  of  Abraham,  and  serve  him  with  their  faith. 

1 


2  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

And  as  the  true  religion  has  always  been  essentially  the 
same,  so  has  it  ever  had  to  contend  with  the  same  inclination 
of  the  liuman  heart.  That  inclination  was  awfully  exempli- 
hed  in  the  days  of  Noah,  when  "  all  flesh  had  corrupted  his 
way  upon  the  earth ;"  and  that  patriarch's  family  were  alone 
found  just.  It  was  still  more  wonderfully  manifested  in  the 
rebellions  and  backslidings  of  the  children  of  Israel.  It  is 
again  seen  in  the  description  which  Scripture  gives  of  the 
fallen  state  of  Jew  and  Gentile,  when  the  Son  of  God  came 
to  save  a  perishing  world. ^  And  who,  that  reflects  on  the 
exhortations  and  predictions  addressed  to  Christians  by  the 
Lord  and  his  disciples,  can  fail  to  perceive  that  the  same  evil 
tendency  of  the  human  heart  was  always  to  remain,  even  in 
the  state  of  grace,  and  to  form  the  chief  danger  and  trial  ot 
the  Church  of  God  ? 

The  life  of  a  true  Christian,  as  described  in  Scripture,  con 
sists  of  self-denial,  of  warfare  against  the  inclinations  of  na 
ture,  of  prayer  and  watchfulness  under  the  deepestjconscious 
ness  of  infirmity,  of  labour  to  walk  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Spirit  of  God,  with  objects,  tastes,  and  desires,  altogether  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  natural  man.  It  was  the  sovereign 
will  of  God,  that  those  who  are  saved  should  be  fitted  for  their 
glorious  inheritance  by  the  discipline  of  this  rough  9.nd  narrow 
way ;  but  few,  even  of  the  best  men,  have  passed  through  it 
without  many  grievous  failures :  all  have  come  short  of  the 
glory  of  God,  and  all  have  need  of  serious  and  frequent  re- 
pentance. Many,  who  profess  to  be  disciples,  have  altoge- 
ther turned  away  to  the  broad  and  beaten  track ;  and,  as  our 
Lord  teaches  that  some  should  hear  the  woi^d  with  joy,  but  in 
time  of  temptation  should  fall  away ;  that  others  should  per- 
mit it  to  be  snatched  from  them  by  the  assaults  of  the  devil, 
or  to  be  choked  beneath  the  cares  of  this  world  and  the  deceit- 
fulness  of  riches ;  he  adds,  that  in  that  day  many  shall  begin 
to  say,  "  We  have  eaten  and  drunk  in  thy  presence  and  thou 

>  RoiK  i.  ii. 


CHAP.  I.    INTRODUCTION.  \  3 

nast  taught  in  our  streets  ;"  and  that  his  reply  shall  b^  « I 
know  you  not  whence  ye  are  :  depart  from  me,  all  ye  wdj'k- 
ers  of  iniquity."^  The  kingdom  or  Church  of  Christ  is,  in- 
deed, compared  to  a  field  in  which  tares  grow  with  the"^ 
wheat,^  and  to  a  net  which  was  let  down  into  the  sea,  and 
gathered  of  all  kinds  both  bad  and  good.^  Such  was  to  be 
the  mingled  state  of  the  Christian  Church,  comprising  not 
only  evil  men,  but  good  men,  subject  to  infirmities,  errors,  and 
sins. 

Nor  was  the  Church  only  to  be  tried  by  inward  failings  ;  it 
was  to  pass  through  the  furnace  of  affliction  and  persecution 
from  without.  The  saints  in  heaven  are  described  as  "  they 
that  came  out  of  great  tribulation  ;"*  and  as  the  Captain  of 
our  salvation  was  ma'''  j  perfect  through  sufferings,'  so  it  was 
fitting  that  the  Church,  which  is  His  Body,"  should  be  baptized 
with  the  baptism  of  his  afflictions  ;  and  accordingly  his  pro- 
mise was,  "  In  the  world  ye  shall  have  tribulation  :  but  be  of 
good  cheer ;  I  have  overcome  the  world.'"" 

There  was  still  a  subtler,  danger  in  store  for  the  Church, 
connected  indeed  with  the  desires  of  the  natural  man,  but 
raised  and  stimulated  by  the  Author  of  evil.  False  Christs 
and  false  prophets  were  to  arise,  and  to  show  great  signs ;  in- 
somuch that,  if  it  were  possible,  they  should  deceive  the  very 
elect."  Damnable  heresies  v/ere  to  be  secretly  introduced :' 
false  teachers  and  antichrists,  carried  away  by  the  desire  of  a 
godless  pre-eminence,  were  to  subvert  the  faith  of  the  unsta- 
ble." As  the  apostle  said,  "  There  must  be  heresies  among 
you,  that  they  which  are  approved  may  be  made  manifest 
among  you."" 

Such  were  to  be  the  infirmities,  such  the  dangers  of  the 
Church ;  and  had  she  been  left  alone,  and  unaided  amidst 
them  all,  "  the  waters  had  overwhelmed  her,  the  stream  had 

1  Luke  xiii.  26,  27.  2  Matt.  xiii.  24-30,  37-43.  ^  MatU  xiii.  47-50 

*  Rev.  vii.  14.  ^  Heb.  ii.  10.  e  Col.  i.  24. 

'  John  xvi.  33.  s  Tyiatt.  xxiii.  24,  9  2  Pet.  ii.  I. 

JO  Acts,  XX.  30  :  '  Tim.  iv  1 :  2  Tim.  iii :  1  John  ii.  8,  iv.  3. 
»  1  Cor.  xi.  19. 


4  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY. 

gonf  over  her  soul."^  Nothing  but  the  Spirit  ol'  God  within 
her  could  have  saved  her  from  speedy  destruction.  But  it 
had  been  decreed  of  old,  that  in  the  seed  of  Abraham  "  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed."^  It  had  been 
foretold  by  the  Spirit,  that  He  "  should  be  for  salvation  to  the 
end  of  the  earth ;"^  that  He  "should  have  dominion  from 
sea  to  sea,  and  from  the  river  to  the  ends  of  the  earth."*  It 
had  been  declared  that  his  kingdom  should  endure  "  for  ever,"^ 
and  that  "  of  the  increase  of  his  goverment  and  peace  there 
should  be  no  end."®  And  therefore  when  the  Son  of  God 
came  into  the  v/orld,  he  said  unto  his  disciples,  "  On  this  rock 
1  will  build  my  Church,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail 
against  it :"'  and  therefore  did  he  console  them  in  the  pros- 
pect of  his  departure ;  "  I  will  not  leave  you  comfortless,  I 
will  come  unto  you  :"*  "I  will  pray  the  Father,  and  he  shall 
give  you  another  Comforter,  that  he  may  abide  with  you  for 
ever,  even  the  Spirit  of  truth."'  And  when  about  to  ascend 
up  on  high,  he  left  to  them  that  encouraging  and  blessed  pro- 
mise, "  Lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even  to  the  end  of  the 
world."" 

The  history  of  the  Church,  then,  is  not  like  other  historitjs, 
in  which  the  progress  and  fate  of  human  enterprises  is  describ- 
ed ;  it  is  the  fulfilment  of  God's  will  for  the  salvation  of  man, 
the  accomplishment  of  prophecies,  the  triumph  of  grace  over 
the  imperfection  and  sins  of  nature.  The  perpetuity  of  the 
Church ;  its  propagation  in  all  nations  ;  the  succession  of  the 
true  faith ;  the  manifestations  of  the  Holy  Spirit's  assistance 
in  the  lives  of  Christians ;  the  calamities,  errors,  afflictions, 
which,  in  all  ages,  beset  it, — afford  new  proofs  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity  itself,  and  inspire  the  devout  mind  with  humility 
and  faith. 

The  principal  periods  of  ecclesiastical  history  may  be  ar- 
ranged under  the  following  divisions. 

»  Ps.  cxxiv.  4.  2  Gen.  xxii.  18.  '  Is.  xlix.  6. 

*Ps.  lxxii.8.  6  Danielii,  44.  «  Isaiah  ix.  7. 

'  Matt.  xvi.  18.  9  John  xiv.  18.  »  John  xiv.  16. 
"  Matt,  xxviii.  20. 


A.D.  30-320.  PROGRESS    OF    THE    CHURCH.  5 

First,  the  ages  of  persecution,  which  terminated  with  the 
accession  of  the  Emperor  Constantino  to  universal  empire,  in 
A.  D.  320,  and  during  which  the  Church  was  purest. 

Secondly,  the  ages,  (a.d.  320-680,)  when  heresies  invaded 
the  Church,  and  v/ere  repelled  by  the  six  holy  oecumenical 
synods ;  and  when  the  ravages  of  barbarians  and  heathens 
were  counterbalanced  by  the  conversion  of  many  nations. 

Thirdly,  the  period  (680-1054)  in  v/hich  ignorance,  world- 
liness,  and  superstition,  began  to  fall  thickly  upon  the  Church, 
though  an  earnest  spirit  of  piety  still  continued  to  produce 
evangelists,  saints,  and  martyrs,  and  to  add  wide  regions  to 
the  Church  of  Christ. 

Fourthl}^,  the  times  (1054-1517)  when  the  East  and  West 
were  estranged  by  the  ambition  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  ;  when 
those  bishops,  elevated  to  the  summit  of  temporal  and  spiritu- 
al power  in  the  West,  introduced  numberless  corruptions  and 
innovations  ;  and  when  their  power  began  to  fade  av/ay. 

Fifthly,  the  epoch  (1517-1839)  when  a  reformation  being 
called  for,  was  resisted  by  those  who  ought  to  have  promoted 
it ;  when  the  V/estern  Church  became  divided  ;  and  at  length 
infidelity  came  to  threaten  universal  destruction. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE  EARLY  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

A.D.  30-320. 

"  Whereunto  shall  we  liken  the  kingdom  of  God,  or  with 
what  comparison  shall  we  compare  iti"  said  the  Lord.  "It 
is  like  a  grain  of  mustard-seed,  which,  when  it  is  sown  in  the 
earth,  is  less  than  all  the  seeds  that  be  in  the  earth.  But  when 
it  is  sown,  it  groweth  up,  and  becometh  greater  than  all  herbs, 
and  shooteth  out  great  branches,  so  that  the  fowls  of  the  air 
'nay   lodge  under  the  shadow  of  it."^      The  Holy  Spirit,  by 

'  M»  .t.  iv.  30-32. 
1* 


6  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.   II 


the  mouth  of  the  prophet  Daniel,  had  many  ages  before  pre- 
dicted the  same  wonderful  origin  and  diffusion  of  the  king- 
dom of  "Christ,  under  the  figure  of  "the  stone  cut  out  of  the 
mountain  without  hands,"  which  "  became  a  great  mountain, 
and  filled  the  whole  earth. "^  Thus  was  Christianit}'-  destined 
to  spring  from  a  small  and  obscure  beginning,  and  to  over- 
spread the  earth  in  the  luxuriance  of  its  growth.  And  so  it 
came  to  pass.  From  Judea,  the  least  of  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  and  from  twelve  of  its  poorest  and  most  illiterate  chil- 
dren, a  "  sound  went  into  all  the  earth,  and  words  unto  the 
ends  of  the  world.  "^  The  Son  of  God,  when  about  to  de- 
part, had  given  to  them  that  lofty  commission :  "All  power 
is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  Go  ye,  therefore,  and 
teach  all  nations,  baptising  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  teaching  them  to  ob- 
serve all  things  that  I  have  commanded  you  :"  and  they  "went 
forth  and  preached  every  where,  the  Lord  working  with  them, 
and  confirming  the  word  with  signs  following." 

The  number  of  the  disciples  assembled  in  the  upper  room 
at  Jerusalem,  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  was  only  a  hundred 
and  twenty ;  but  the  miracles  of  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  sermon  of  St.  Peter,  added  three  thousand  souls  ;  and  ere 
long,  "  the  Lord  adding  to  the  Church  daily  such  as  should 
be  saved,"  the  number  of  the  men  was  five  thousand.'  In 
vain  did  the  priests  and  their  adherents  endeavour  to  prevent 
the  progress  of  true  religion,  by  inflicting  punishments  on 
its  preachers.  The  next  account  is,  that  "the  word  of  God 
increased ;  and  the  number  of  the  disciples  multiplied  in  Jerusa- 
lem greatly ;  and  a  great  company  of  the  priests  was  obedient 
to  the  faith." 

The  Gospel  was,  as  yet,  preached  at  Jerusalem  only — in 
one  city  of  a  remote  and  obscure  province  of  the  Roman 
empire.  What  mere  worldly  calculation  could  then  have 
imagined  the  triumphs  which  were  in  store   for  it  ?     Who 

'  Dan.  it.  35,  44, 45.  '  Rom.  x.  18.  =»  Acts  ii.  47, 


.D.  30-320.  FKOGRESS    OF    THE    CHURCH.  7 

could  then  \vx\e  expected  that  philosophies,  idolatries,  and  su- 
perstitions, the  growth  of  so  many  long  ages,  were  to  be  pros- 
trated and  annihilated  before  it,  and  that  the  kingdoms  of  the 
earth  were  to  bow  beneath  its  dominion? 

The  destruction  which  Satan  meditated  against  the  Church 
in  its  infancy,  was  made  the  means  of  disseminating  it  more 
widely.  The  great  persecution  at  Jerusalem,  in  ^  j,  g^ 
which  the  first  martyr,  St.  Stephen,  afforded  so 
noble  an  instance  of  the  power  of  faith,  dispersed  abroad  the 
disciples,  who  preached  throughout  Judsea,  Samaria,  Phoeni- 
cia, Cyprus,  and  Syria.  The  apostles  alone  remained  at  Jeru- 
salem, where  they  probably  continued  to  preach  for  several 
years  after  this  time.  Samaria,  convinced  by  the  miracles 
and  the  doctrine  of  Philip,  with  one  accord  embraced  the 
Gospel :  even  the  sorcerer  Simon,  deserted  by  his  followers, 
and  amazed  at  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  received  baptism,  in 
the  vain  hope  of  obtaining  powers  so  far  superior  to  his  own. 
Tyre  and  Sidon  now  stretched  forth  their  hands  to  the  Lord  ; 
and  at  Antioch  was  a  great  multitude  of  believers. 

Thus  was  the  first  great  impulse  to  the  dissemination  of 
Christianity  given  by  the  persecution  at  Jerusalem.  The  next 
arose  from  the  preaching  of  the  apostle  Paul  to  the  Gentiles, 
which  commenced  about  fourteen  years  after  our  . . 

Lord's  ascension.     The  result  of  his  first  mission 
with  Barnabas  was  the  establishment  of  Churches  in  Pamphy- 
lia,  Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  and  Cilicia,  constituting  the  southern 
portion  of  Asia  Minor.    His  next  circuit,  had  40-0 

the  effect  of  extending  the  Church  in  Phrygia, 
Galatia,  and  Troas,  or  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  in  Ma- 
cedonia and  Greece.     Another  journey  added  the  coasts  of 
Asia  towards  Greece ;  and  the  Church  of  Ephesus  was  form- 
c.d.  over  which  St.  Paul  presided  for  several         ,  rn 

years.     Garnecl  to  Rome,  ho  found  Christi- 
anity already  existing  in  several  parts  of  Italy;  and  the  Roman 
Church,  which  had  lately  been  edified  by  his  epistle,  waanow 
r'  pidly   extended   by   his  preaching.     Released  from  prison 


8  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.    II. 

at  Rome,  he  seems  to  have  revisited  Ephesus,  where  he  left 
Timothy  to  exercise  the  episcopal  office  ;  to  have  preached 
in  Crete,  where  Titus  v/as  invested  witii  similar  povv'ers  ;  and 
to  have  passed  through  Macedonia,  and  even  into  Spain; 
whence,  returning  to  Rome,  he  suffered  for  Christ  about 
A.D.  6S. 

The  other  apostles  also  preached  the  gospel  among  the 
heathen ;  though  St.  Paul  declared  that  "  he  laboured  more^ 
abundantly  than  they  all."  The  north  of  Asia  Minor,  or 
Cappadocia,  Pontus,  and  Bithynia,  (addressed  by  St.  Peter  in 
his  epistle,)  probably  received  the  Gospel  from  that  apostle 
some  time  after  a.d.  52  ;  for  St.  Paul  intended  in  that  year 
to  preach  in  Bithynia,^  which  he  w^ould  not  have  done,  had 
St.  Peter  already  evangelised  that  province,  as  his  rule  was, 
never  to  build  on  another's  foundation.^  The  date  of  St.  Pe- 
ter's epistle  from  Babylon  suggests  the  probability  of  his  hav- 
ing preached  in  Chaldaea  ;  and  St.  Thaddacus  is  said  to  have 
taught  at  Edessa  and  in  Mesopotamia.  In  Egypt  the  Church 
was  founded  by  St.  Mark,  who  constituted  Anianus  the  first 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  There  are  also  traditions,  that  Per- 
sia, Arabia,  and  Ethiopia,  were  visited  by  some  of  the  apostles. 

Thus,  in  about  thirty  years,  that  little  grain  of  mustard- 
seed  had  grown  into  a  mighty  tree,  the  roots  of  which  had 
struck  themselves  deep  in  all  parts  of  the  civilised  world; 
and  already  it  extended  *'  from  the  river  (Euphrates)  to  the 
ends  of  the  earth."  Nor  was  the  success  of  its  propagation 
in  each  locality  inferior  to  the  wideness  of  its  dissemination 
throughout  the  world.  We  have  seen  examples  of  its  rapid 
increase  at  Jerusalem,  at  Samaria,  and  Antioch.  The  hea- 
then historian  Tacitus,  in  describing  the  persecution  which 
A  B  64  68  Christians  suffered  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Ne- 
ro, says,  "At  first,  those  only  were  apprehend- 
ed who  confessed  themselves  of  that  sect ;  afterwards,  a  vast 
multitude  discovered  by  them,  all  of  whom  were  condemned." 
ft  appears  from  a  letter  of  Pliny,  the  Roman  governor  of  Pon 

'  Acts  xvi.  7  s  Rom.  xv.  2fl. 


A.D.  30-320.  PROGRESS  OF  THE  CJHURCH.  9 

tus  an  I  Bithynia,  .hat  Christianity  had  near-         ,  ,  p,-, 

•^       '  /    .  about  A. D.  10 «. 

\y  caused  the  heathen  worship  in  those 
countries  to  be  deserted.  Consujting  the  Emperor  Trajan  as 
to  the  mode  of  deaUng  with  Christians,  he  says,  "  Therefore, 
suspending  all  judicial  proceedings,  I  have  recourse  to  you 
for  advice ;  for  it  has  appeared  to  me  a  matter  highly  deserv- 
ing consideration,  especially  upon  account  of  the  great  num- 
bers of  persons  who  are  in  danger  of  suffering;  for  many  of 
all  ages,  and  every  rank,  of  both  sexes  likewise,  are  accused, 
and  will  be  accused.  Nor  has  the  contagion  of  this  super- 
stition seized  cities  only,  but  the  lesser  towns  also,  and  the 
open  country.  Nevertheless  it  seems  to  me  that  it  may  be  re- 
strained and  corrected.  It  is  certain,  that  the  (heathen)  tem- 
ples, which  were  almost  forsaken,  begin  to  be  more  frequent- 
ed; and  the  sacred  solemnities,  after  a  long  remission,  are 
revived.  Victims  (for  the  sacrifices)  likewise  are  every  v/here 
bought  up,  whereas  for  some  time  there  were  few  purchasers." 
It  appears  from  this  remarkable  testimony,  that  Christianity 
had,  in  the  course  of  about  fifty  years,  almost  subverted  idol- 
atry in  those  provinces. 

Little  is  knov/n  of  the  progress  of  Christianity  for  some 
years  after  the  death  of  the  apostles.  The  Church  was  pro- 
bably engaged  chiefly  in  the  labour  of  converting  the  popula- 
tion more  immediately  around  it ;  and  we  hear  little  of  ne-v^ 
missions  to  the  heathen;  yet  Justin  Martyr  f  a  d150 

wrote  in  his  Apology,  that "  there  is  no  race  of 
men,  whether  barbarian  or  Greek,  or  by  v/hatever  other  name 
they  be  designated,  whether  they  wander  in  wagons,  or  dwell 
in  tents,  amongst  whom  prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  not 
offered  +o  the  Father  and  Creator  of  all,  in  the  name  of  the 

crucified  Jesus."     We  learn  from Irenseus,         ,     .  .  r^  itq 

^  about  A.D.  iio. 

bishop  of  Lyons,  that  the  light  of  the  Gos- 

pel  had,  at   that  time,  been  received  in  Germany,   France. 

Spain,  and  in  Libya  :  and  Tertullian,  a  few  t  a  d  198 

years  later,  declares  that  Parthia,  Media, 

A.rmenia,  the  Getuli  and  Moors  in  Africa,  all  the  borders  of 


10  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  III. 

Spain,  many  nations  of  Gaul,  those  parts  of  Britaii  which 
were  inaccessible  to  the  Romans,  the  Sarmatians,  Dacians, 
Germans,  Scythians,  and  other  nations  and  islands  innumera- 
ble, were  then  subject  to  the  dominion  of  Christ.  "  We  are 
but  of  yesterday,"  he  said :  "yet  we  have  filled  your  empire, 
your  cities,  your  islands,  your  castles,  your  corporate  tov/ns, 
your  assemblies,  your  very  camps,  your  tribes,  your  compa- 
nies, your  palace,  your  senate,  your  forum ;  your  temples 
alone  are  left  to  you."  "We  constitute,"  he  elsewhere  says, 
"  almost  the  majority  in  every  town." 

In  the  succeeding  century  new  nations  were  gathered  with- 
in the  fold  of  Christ.     The  assiduous  labours  of  Origen  con- 
214       "^'crted  many  of  the  Arabs  to  Christianity.     The 
Goths  of  Mysia  and  Thrace  followed   their  ex- 
ample ;  and  a  number  of  pious  missionaries  successfully  dis- 

.  T.  oQA       seminated  the  Gospel  throucrhout  Gaul,  and 
about  A.D.  280.      „       ,    ,  1    1        1       •     r- 

rounded  several  churches  m  Germany. 

So  great  v/as  the  progress  of  religion,  notwithstanding  the 
violent  and  cruel  persecutions  to  which  it  was  continually  ex- 
posed, that  it  became  no  less  the  interest  than  tlie  duty  of  the 
first  Christian  emperor,  Constantino  the  Great,  to  relieve  the 
Church  from  persecution,  to  act  as  the  defender  of  its  faith,  and 
to  distinguish  its  ministers  and  members  by  marks  of  his  fa- 
vour and  generosity. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ON  THE  FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

A.D.  30-320. 


■  The  promises  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples,  that  the  Spirit 
';.f  truth  should  lead  them  into  all  truth  and  abide  with  them 
far  ever,  that  the  gates  of  hell  should  not  prevail  against  his 
Church,  and  that  he  would  himself  be  always  with  his  dis- 
ciples,— imply  that  the  faith  revealed  by  Jesus  Christ  should, 


A.D.  30-320.  FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH.  11 

in  every  age,  continue  to  purify  and  sanctify  the  hearts  and 
lives  of  his  real  followers ;  and  we  may  hence  infer,  that  the 
belief  which  has,  in  all  ages,  been  derived  by  the  Church  from 
holy  Scripture ;  the  great  truths  which  Christians  have  al- 
ways unanimously  iield  to  be  essential  to  the  Christian  profes- 
sion ;  which  have  supported  them  under  the  tortures  of  mar- 
tyrdom, and  transformed  them  from  sin  to  righteousness  ;  that 
such  doctrines  are,  without  doubt,  the  very  same  which  God 
himself  revealed  for  the  salvation  of  man. 

What,  then,  was  the  belief  received  by  all  Christians  from 
the  beginning  ?  Let  the  martyr  Irenseus,  the  friend  of  St. 
John's  disciple  Polycarp,  reply :  "  The  Church,"  he  says, 
"  though  disseminated  throughout  the  whole  world,  even  unto 
the  ends  of  the  earth,  hath  received  from  the  apostles  the  be- 
lief in  one  God,  the  Father  Almighty,  who  made  heaven  and 
earth,  and  the  seas  and  all  that  in  them  is  ;  and  in  one  Christ 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  who  was  made  man  for  our  salva- 
tion ;  and  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  who,  through  the  prophets,  an- 
nounced the  dispensations  (of  God,)  the  advent  of  the  beloved 
Christ  Jesus  our  Lord,  his  birth  of  a  virgin,  his  suffering,  re- 
surrection from  the  dead,  and  bodily  ascension  into  heaven, 
and  his  coming  (again)  from  the  heavens  in  the  glory  of  the 
Father,  to  gather  together  all  things  in  one,  and  to  raise  up 
all  flesh  of  mankind,  in  order  that,  according  to  the  invisible 
Father's  will,  every  knee  of  things  in  heaven,  and  things  in 
earth,  and  things  under  the  earth,  may  bow  to  Christ  Jesus 
our  Lord,  our  God,  our  Saviour,  and  our  King,  and  every 
tongue  confess  unto  him  ;  and  that  he  may  exercise  righteous 
judgment  on  all— ^may  send  spiritual  wickedness,  and  the  an- 
gels that  transgressed  and  became  apostate,  and  the  impious, 
unrighteous,  wicked,  and  blasphemous  among  men,  into  eter- 
nal fire  ;  and  bestow  hfe  and  immortality  and  eternal  glory 
on  the  righteous,  the  pious,  and  those  who  observe  his  com- 
mandments, and  continue  in  his  love,  either  from  the  begin- 
ning, or  from  the  time  of  their  repentance." 

'^This   preaching,  and  this   faith   (as  we  have  said,)  the 


12  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  JU 

Church,  though  disseminated  throughout  the  whole  world, 
guards  as  carefully  as  if  she  dwelt  in  one  house ;  believes  as 
if  she  had  but  one  soul ;  and  proclaims,  teaches,  and  delivers, 
as  if  she  possessed  but  one  mouth." 

Such  was  the  universal  belief  of  Christians  in  the  secona 
century,  as  it  still  continues  in  the  nineteenth.  We  here  find 
the  most  plain  assertions  of  the  Godhead  of  the  Father,  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  the  incarnation  and  satisfaction  of 
our  Lord ;  the  resurrection  and  future  judgment ;  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  obedience  and  the  love  of  God.  That  Christians 
v/orshipped  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  God,  is  attested  even  by 
,p«  the  heathen  writer  Pliny.  "They  affirmed,"  he 
says,  "  that  the  whole  of  their  fault  lay  in  this, 
that  they  were  wont  to  m.eet  together  on  a  stated  day,  before 
it  was  light,  and  sing  among  themselves,  alternately,  a  hymn 
to  Christ  as  God.'' 

The  condemnation  of  heresies  in  these  ages  affords  an  ad- 
ditional illustration  of  the  belief  of  the  Church.  When 
.  (^^  Theodotus  and  Artemon,  heretics,  taught  at  Rome 
that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  not  God,  but  a 
mere  man,  they  were  expelled  from  communion  by  Victor, 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  by  the  Roman  Church ;  and  they  were 
universally  rejected  and  abhorred  by  all  Christians.  When 
Paul  of  Samosata,  bishop  of  Antioch,  endeavoured  to  revive 
this  error,  a  council  or  meeting  of  seventy  bishops,  from  all 
fy^^  parts  of  the  East,  assembled  at  Antioch,  and  ex- 
pelled  him  from  the  Church.  In  their  epistle,  ad- 
dressed to  all  the  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  throughout 
the  whole  world,  and  still  extant,  they  declared  that  "  he  re- 
fused  to  confess  with  them  that  the  Son  of  God  came  down 
from  heaven ;"  that  he  said,  "  that  Jesus  Christ  is  of  the 
earth  ;"  and  that  he  had  thus  "  abjured  the  faith,  and  gloried 
in  the  accursed  heresy  of  Artemon."  Nothing  can  more 
plainly  show  the  belief  of  the  Church.     The  error  of  Praxeas, 

u  198  258  Noetus,  and  Sabellius,  in  the  third  century, 
who  affirmed  that  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 


A.D.  30-320.  MARTYRDOMS.  13 

the  Holy  Ghost,  arc  but  one  person,  thus  virtually  denying  thai 
the  Son,  or  the  PIolv  Ghost,  could  have  been  "  sent"  by  thp 
Father,^  or  "come  from,"''  or  "be  with,"^  or  "intercede 
with,"*  the  Father,  were  also  universally  rejected  by  the 
Churchj  as  contrary  to  the  Christian  faith.  The  belief  of 
Christians  in  the  incarnation  and  real  bodily  existence  of  Je- 
sus Christ  was  manifested  in  their  opposition  to  the  Gnostics 
and  Manichseans,  who  held  that  our  Lord's  body  was  not  real, 
but  a  mere  phantom,  and  that  he  did  not  die  on  the  cross  :  er- 
rors destructive  at  once  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  history, 
of  the  atonement  of  Christ,  and  of  the  great  miracle  of  his 
resurrection  from  the  dead. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


FRUITS  OF  FAITH  EXEMPLIFIED  IN  THE  MARTYRS. 

A.D.  30-320. 

This  may  sufiice  to  show  the  belief  which  was  unanimous- 
ly received  by  the  primitive  Church.  Let  us  now  proceed  to 
observe  its  fruits.  The  power  of  true  faith  has  never  been 
more  wonderfully  exhibited  than  in  the  patience,  the  courage, 
ajad  magnanimity  of  the  martyrs.  Animated  by  the  promises 
of  their  Saviour,  "  whosoever  shall  confess  me  before  men, 
him  will  I  confess  before  my  Father  in  heaven — he  that  loseth 
his  life  for  my  sake  shall  find  it — rejoice  and  be  exceeding 
glad,  for  so  persecuted  they  the  prophets  which  were  before 
you," — they  believed,  and  triumphed  in  the  belief,  that  their 
short  affliction  was  to  work  for  them  a  far  more  exceeding  and 
eternal  weight  of  glory. 

But  the  afflictions  which  they  suffered  were  enough  to  have 
broken  down  the  strongest  heart.  Every  thing  that  malice 
and  ingenuity  could  devise  was  employed  to  shake  their  reso- 

»  John  V.  23.  2  John  xv.  26,  xvi.  28..     . 

s  Johni.  1.  *Heb.  viL  25. 


14  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTOKY.  Cll.  IV» 

lution  The  rage  and  insolence  of  a  brutal  popi  ace,  the 
scourges  and  tortures  of  legal  barbarity,  and  the  more  subtU 
torment  of  promises  and  entreaties  to  save  their  lives  by  com 
pliance  in  idolatrous  rites,  v/ere  the  portion  of  innumerable 
disciples  of  Christ.  The  Jews  ha.d  been  the  earliest  encmie? 
of  the  Christian  faith ;  but  their  hatred  was  soon  forgolten. 
in  the  persecutions  which,  for  three  centuries,  were  inflicted 
by  the  Roman  emperors.  To  Nero,  a  tyrant  whose  namo 
became  proverbial,  even  v/ith  the  heathen,  for  all  that  was 
abominable  in  impurity  and  fearful  in  cruelty,  belongs  the 
evil  pre-eminence  of  being  the  first  great  persecutor  of  the 
fid  fi'^  Church.  Accused  by  the  popular  rumour  of 
having  caused  a  dreadful  fire,  v/hich  had  nearly 
consumed  Rome,  in  order  that  he  might  have  the  honour  of 
rebuilding  it  with  greater  magnificence,  Nero  expended  large 
sums  of  money  in  conciliating  the  populace,  in  adorning  the 
city,  and  in  sacrifices  to  his  gods.  "  But,"  adds  the  heathen 
historian  Tacitus,  "  neither  human  assista^nce,  nor  the  gifts 
of  the  emperor,  nor  the  atonements  oflTered  to  the  gods,  avail- 
ed ;  the  infamy  of  that  horrible  transaction  still  adhered  to 
him.  To  repress,  if  possible,  this  common  rumour,  Nero 
procured  others  to  be  accused,  and  punished  with  exquisite  tor- 
tures a  race  of  men  detested  for  their  evil  practices,  who  were 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Christians.  The  author 
of  that  sect  was  Christus,  who,  in  the  rein  of  Tiberius,  was 
punished  with  death,  as  a  criminal,  by  the  procurator  Pontius 
Pilate.  But  this  pestilent  superstition,  though  checked  for  a 
while,  broke  out  afresh,  not  only  in  Judsea,  where  the  evil  first 
originated,  but  even  in  the  city  (Rome,)  the  common  sink  in- 
to  which  every  thing  filthy  and  abominable  flows  from  all 
c^uarters  of  the  world.  At  first,  those  only  were  apprehended 
vho  confessed  themselves  of  that  sect ;  afterv/ards,  a  vast 
Knultitude  discovered  by  them  ;  all  of  v/norn  were  condemned, 
^ot  so  much  for  the  crime  of  burning  the  city,  as  for  their  en- 
ittiity  to  mankind.  Their  executions  v/cre  so  contrived  as  to 
expose  them  to  derision  and  contempt.     Some  were  covered 


A.D.  30-320.  MARTYRDOMS.  15 

over  v/ith  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  that  they  might  be  torn  to 
pieces  by  dogs ;  some  were  crucified ;  while  others,  having 
been  daubed  over  v/ith  combustible  materials,  were  set  up  as 
lights  in  the  night-tim.e,  and  thus  burned  to  death.  For  these 
spectacles,  Nero  gave  his  own  gardens;  and  at  the  same 
time  exhibited  there  the  diversions  of  the  circus ;  sometimes 
standing  in  the  crowd  as  a  spectator,  in  the  habit  of  a  chari- 
oteer, and  at  other  times  driving  a  chariot  himself :  until  at 
length  these  men,  though  really  criminal,  and  deserving  ex- 
emplary punishment,  began  to  be  commiserated  as  people 
who  vv^ere  destroyed,  not  out  of  regard  to  the  public  v/elfare, 
but  only  to  gratify  the  cruelty  of  one  man." 

Such  was  the  dreadful  comm.encement  of  persecution  ;  such 
the  torments  under  v/hich  Christians  steadfastly  continued  in 
their  profession  of  Christ.  The  heathen  regarded  this  stead- 
fastness as  obstinacy  and  insanity.  The  rejection  of  all  the 
gods  of  the  heathen,  and  all  their  worship,  was  stigmatised 
as  atheism  and  impiety.  Abstinence  from  the  vices,  the  cor- 
ruptions, and  the  vile  pleasures  of  the  world,  was  treated  as 
the  result  of  a  sour  and  unsocial  temper.  But  though  "  hated 
of  all  men"  for  the  nam.e  of  Christ,  true  religion  only  multi- 
plied and  increased  under  persecution.  St.  Paul  Vv^as  at  this 
time  beheaded  at  Rome,  and  St.  Peter  was  crucified  vvith  his 
head  downwards. 

The  next  persecution  was  under  Domitian,  dur-  f.« 

.  A.D.  yd. 

ing  which  the  apostle  John  was  immersed  m  a 

cauldron  of  boiling  oil,  at  Rome,  and  miraculously  escaping 
without  hurt,  was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he 
oeheld  the  visions  of  the  Apocalypse ;  and  from  whence  he 
went  to  Ephesus,  and  presided  over  the  Churches  of  Asia. 
The  reigns  of  Trajan,  Aurelius,  Severus,  Decius,  Valerian, 
Diocletian,  and  Maximian,  were  also  stained  by  persecutions 
of  the  Christians.  The  last  of  these  v^^as  also  the  most  se- 
vere ;  it  continued  for  ten  successsive  years,  during  which 
innumerable  martyrs  attested  their  belief  in  Jesus  Christ. 
I  shall  select,  as  an  illustration  of  the  faith  of  Christians 


16  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORT.  CH.  IV. 

under  persecution,  the  following  account  of  the  martyrdom 
of  St.  Polycarp,  who  had  been  made  bishop  of  Smyrna  by 
the  apostles,  and  was  a  disciple  of  St.  John.  The  epistle  of 
the  Church  of  Smyrna,  in  which  it  occurs,  and  which  was 
written  a.d.  167,*  commences  as  follows  : — 

"  The  Church  of  God  which  is  at  Smyrna,  to  that  which  is 
at  Philomelium,!  and  to  all  the  Churches  of  the  Holy  Catho- 
lic Church  in  all  parts,  mercy,  peace,  and  love,  be  multiplied 
from  God  the  Father,  and  from  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
Having  described  the  constancy  of  mind  with  which  many 
of  the  martyrs  in  that  city  had  borne  the  most  dreadful  tor- 
tures, they  proceed  thus  : — "  The  admirable  Polycarp,  when 
he  first  heard  of  these  things,  remained  undisturbed,  pre- 
serving his  calmness  and  serenity ;  and  he  had  resolved  to 
remain  in  the  city,  but  being  persuaded  by  the  entreaties  and 
prayers  of  his  friends,  he  retired  to  a  village  not  far  off, 
where  he  continued  with  a  few  others,  occupied  day  and  night 
only  in  continual  prayer,  supplicating  and  beseeching  peace 
for  the  Churches  throughout  the  world  ;  for  this  was  his  con- 
tinual habit.  And,  as  he  was  praying,  he  sav/  a  vision,  three 
days  before  he  was  taken ;  and  behold  the  pillov/  under  his 
head  seemed  to  him  on  fire.  Whereupon,  turning  to  those 
who  were  with  him,  he  said,  prophetically,  that  he  should  be 
burnt  alive."  He  v/as  at  length  discovered  by  the  persecu- 
tors. "  Arriving  in  the  evening,  they  found  him  resting  in 
an  upper  chamber,  whence  he  might  have  escaped  with  ease 
into  another  house,  but  he  would  not,  saying,  '  The  will  of 
the  Lord  be  done ;'  and,  having  heard  of  their  arrival,  he 
went  down  and  spoke  to  them  with  so  joyful  and  mild  a  coun- 
tenance, that  they  who  knew  him  not  before  thought  they  be- 
held somewhat  wonderful,  v*-hcn  they  saw  his  old  age,  and 
the  gravity  and  constancy  of  his  demeanour,  and  they  mar- 

•[Rather,  as  Mr.  Greswell  (Suppl.  Diss,  on  Harm,  of  Gosp.  Vol.  IV.)  has 
satisfactorily  proved,  a.d.  164. — Am.  Ed.] 

t [Another  copy  has  "  at  Philadelphia:"  the  epistle  was  no  doubt  a  cir- 
cular, addressed  to  several  ncishbouring  or  cogtiate  Churches.-  -Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.  30-320.  MARTYRDOMS.  17 

veiled  why  such  diligence  was  used  to  take  an  aged  man  like 
this.  He  immediately  offered  to  them  i*efreshment,  and  re- 
quested permission  from  them  to  pray  in  freedom  for  one 
hour ;  which  being  granted,  he  arose  and  prayed,  being  so 
full  of  the  grace  of  God,  that  those  who  were  present,  and 
heard  him  pray,  were  amazed,  and  many  of  them  repented 
that  they  had  taken  so  venerable  and  holy  a  man. 

*'  When  he  had  ceased  his  prayer,  in  which  he  made  men- 
tion of  all  whom  he  had  ever  known,  whether  small  or  great, 
eminent  or  obscure,  and  of  all  the  Catholic  Church  through- 
out the  world ;  the  hour  of  departure  being  come,  he  was 
placed  on  an  ass,  and  brought  into  the  city,  that  being  the 
great  Sabbath.  Here  the  Irenarch  Herod,  and  his  father  Ni- 
cetas,  met  him,  who  placed  him  in  their  chariot ;  and  seated 
beside  him,  persuaded  him,  saying,  *  What  is  the  harm  to 
say.  Lord  Csesar,  and  to  sacrifice,  and  so  to  save  your  life  V 
And  he  at  first  answered  them  not ;  but  when  they  continu- 
ed, he  said,  '  I  will  not  do  what  you  counsel  me.'  Then  hav- 
ing failed  to  persuade  him,  they  uttered  reproaches,  and  threw 
him  violently  down,  so  that  in  falling  from  the  chariot  he 
hurt  his  thigh-bone.  Unmoved,  as  if  he  had  not  thus  suf- 
fered, he  went  with  alacrity  and  speed  to  the  amphitheatre, 
whither  he  was  led.  And  when  the  tumult  there  was  so  great 
that  few  could  hear,  a  voice  from  heaven  came  to  Polycarp, 
as  he  entered  the  amphitheatre, '  Be  strong,  and  quit  thee  like  a 
man,  Polycarp.'  No  one  beheld  the  speaker,  but  many  of  us 
heard  the  voice. 

"  "When,  therefore,  he  was  brought  forth,  there  was  a  great 
tumult  among  those  who  heard  that  he  was  taken.  More- 
over, the  proconsul  asked,  as  he  approached,  if  '  he  were 
Polycarp  V  and  when  he  had  assented,  he  persuaded  him  to 
deny  (Ciirist,)  saying,  '  Have  pity  on  thine  old  age,'  and  such 
other  things  as  are  customary  with  them  ;  as,  '  Swear  by  the 
fortune  of  Caesar;  repent;  say.  Away  with  the  godless!' 
(Christians.)  Then  Polycarp,  looking  constantly  on  all  the 
crowd  in  the  amphitheatre,  stretching  forth  his  hand  toward 

2* 


13  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  T7 

them,  groaning,  and  looking  up  to  heaven,  said,  '  Away  with 
the  godless!'  But  when  the  proconsul  pressed  him,  and 
said,  'Swear,  and  I  will  release  thee — reproach  Christ ;'  Poly- 
carp  replied,  '  Eighty  and  six  years  do  I  serve  him,  and  never 
hath  he  injured  me  ;  and  how  can  I  blasphem.e  my  King  and 
my  Saviour  V  When  the  proconsul  continued  to  urge  him, 
saying,  '  Swear  by  the  fortune  of  Csesar ;'  Polycarp  saith, 
*  Since  thou  art  so  vainly  urgent  that  I  should  swear  by  the 
fortune  of  Csesar,  and  feignest  not  to  know  what  I  am,  hear 
me  declare  it  with  boldness,  I  am  a  Christian.  If  thou  de- 
sirest  to  hear  the  reasons  for  our  faith,  grant  me  a  day,  and 
hear  them.'  The  proconsul  said,  'Persuade  the  people.' 
Polycarp  replied,  *  Thee  I  have  thought  worthy  to  hear  the 
reasons  for  our  faith,  for  we  are  taught  to  render  unto  pow- 
ers and  authorities  constituted  of  God  the  honour  which  is 
fitting,  and  which  is  not  injurious  to  us  ;  but  for  these  (people,) 
I  have  not  thought  them  worthy  to  hear  my  defence.'  The 
proconsul  said,  *  I  have  wild  beasts,  and  will  cast  thee  unto 
them,  except  thou  repentest.'  He  replied,  'Call  them  ;  I 
cannot  change  from  good  to  evil ;  it  is  good  to  change  from 
sin  to  righteousness.'  The  proconsul,  'I  will  cause  thee  to 
be  devoured  by  fire,  since  thou  despisest  the  beasts,  unless 
thou  repentest.'  Polycarp,  '  Thou  threatenest  fire  which 
burncth  but  for  a  time  and  is  then  extinguished,  for  thou 
knowest  not  the  fire  of  future  judgment  and  of  eternal  punish- 
ment reserved  for  the  wicked.  But  why  tarriest  thou?  Bring 
what  thou  wilt.'  Having  said  this,  and  much  more,  he  was 
filled  with  courage  and  joy,  and  his  countenance  was  full  of 
grace  ;  so  that  not  only  he  failed  not  with  terror  at  what  was 
said  unto  him,  but  the  proconsul  was  amazed,  and  sent  his 
crier  to  proclaim  thrice  in  the  midst  of  the  amphitheatre, 
*  Polycarp  has  confessed  himself  a  Christian.' 

"  When  this  was  proclaimed,  all  the  crowd  of  Gentiles  and 
Jews  at  Smyrna  cried  aloud,  with  irrepressible  fury,  '  This 
is  the  teacher  of  Asia,  the  father  of  the  Christians,  the  de 
stroyer  of  our  gods,  who  teaches  many  not  to  sacrifice  or  ta 


A..D.  30-320.  MARTTRDOJIS.  19 

worship.'  Thus  saying,  they  called  out  and  requested  the 
asiarch  Philip  to  let  loose  a  lion  at  Polycarp.  He  said  that 
it  was  not  lawful  for  him  to  do  so,  as  the  combats  of  beasis 
had  closed.  They  then  cried  out  with  one  accord  that  Poly- 
carp should  be  burned  alive." 

The  account  proceeds :  "  These  things  were  no  sooner 
said  than  done,  the  crowd  instantly  collecting  wood  and  com- 
bustibles from  the  workshops  and  baths ;  the  Jews  especial- 
ly, as  their  manner  is,  lending  their  willing  assistance.  But 
when  the  fuel  wa.s  ready,  he  laid  aside  his  vesture,  and  loos- 
ing his  zone,  endeavoured  to  take  off  his  under  garments. 
This  he  had  not  been  accustomed  to  do,  as  all  the  faithful 
contended  who  should  first  touch  his  skin ;  for  always,  even 
before  his  old  age,  he  was  universally  reverenced  for  his  vir- 
tue. The  materials  prepared  for  the  iire  were  speedily  placed 
around  him,  and  when  they  would  have  nailed  him  to  the 
stake,  he  said,  '  Leave  me  thus  ;  for  He  who  hath  given  me 
power  to  endure  the  iire,  will  grant  me  also  to  remain  stead- 
fast without  your  nails ;'  and  they  did  not  do  so,  but  bound 
him  to  it.  And  he,  with  his  hands  bound  behind  him,  like  a 
comely  ram  chosen  from  the  flock  to  be  a  whole  burnt-offer- 
ing to  God,  said,  *  Father  of  thy  beloved  and  blessed  Son 
Jesus  Christ,  through  v/hom  we  have  received  the  knowledge 
of  thee  ;  God  of  angels,  and  povv^ers,  and  of  a,ll  the  creation, 
and  of  all  the  generation  of  the  righteous  who  live  in  thy 
presence ;  I  bless  thee,  because  thou  hast  thought  m.e  v/orthy 
of  this  day  and  this  hour,  to  take  part  in  the  number  of  thy 
martyrs,  in  the  cup  of  Christ,  to  the  resurrection  of  soul 
and  body  in  the  incorruption  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  eternal 
life.  Amongst  whom  may  I  be  received  this  day  into  thy 
presence  as  a  rich  and  acceptable  sacrifice,  as  thou  hast  be- 
fore ordained  and  hast  now  fulfilled ;  thou,  who  art  without 
falsehood,  the  true  God.  For  this,  and  for  all  things  T  praise 
thee,  I  bless  thee,  I  glorify  thee ;  through  the  eternal  High- 
Driest  Jesua  Christ,  thy  beloved  Son ;  through  whom  be  glory 


20  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  IV. 

to  thee  with  him,  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  both  now  and  unto  all 
ages  to  come.     Amen.' 

"  When  he  had  uttered  the  amen,  and  finished  his  prayer, 
the  executioners  lighted  the  fire;  but  when  a' great  flame  burst 
forth,  we,  to  whom  it  was  permitted  to  behold,  and  who  were 
retained  that  we  might  relate  it  to  the  rest,  beheld  a  wondrous 
thing ;  for  the  fire,  afTording  the  appearance  of  a  vault,  like  the 
sail  of  a  ship  filled  with  the  wind,  surrounded  in  a  circle  the 
body  of  the  martyr ;  and  he  was  in  tlie  midst,  not  like  burn- 
ing flesh,  but  like  gold  and  silver  in  the  furnace,  and  we 
smelt  a  savour  sweet  as  incense  or  some  other  precious  per- 
fumes. The  wicked,  observing  that  his  body  could  not  be 
consumed  by  fire,  commanded  the  executioner  to  approach 
and  pierce  him  with  a  sword,  which  being  done,  a  great  quan- 
tity of  blood  came  forth,  insomuch  that  the  fire  was  extin- 
guished, and  the  crowd  marvelled  because  the  difference  was 
so  great  between  unbelievers  and  the  elect,  of  whom,  this  our 
apostolic  and  prophetic  teacher,  the  bishop  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Smyrna,  was  the  most  admirable  in  these  our  times." 

The  narrative  adds,  that  their  enemies  endeavoured  to  pre- 
vent the  Christians  from  obtaining  the  remains  of  the  martyr. 
They  urged  the  proconsul  that  his  body  should  not  be  given, 
"Lest,  forsaking  the  crucified  (Jesus,)  they  should  begin  to 
adore  this  man.  And  this  they  said  by  the  suggestion  and  aid 
of  the  Jews,  who  had  watched  our  endeavours  to  remove  him 
from  tho  fire,  being  ignorant  that  we  can  never  forsake  Christ, 
who  suffered  for  the  salvation  of  those  who  are  saved  out  of 
all  the  world,  nor  adore  any  other.  For  him,  as  being  the 
Son  of  God,  we  worship;  but  the  martyrs,  as  being  dis- 
ciples and  imitators  of  the  Lord,  we  love  as  they  deserve,  on 
account  of  their  unconquerable  love  to  their  King  and  Master." 

Space  will  not  permit  me  to  cite  similar  examples  of  faith 
and  Christian  heroism  from  the  martyrdoms  of  the  blessed  Si- 
meon, bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  St.  Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch ; 
Justin  Martj^r ;  the  martyrs  of  Lyons ;  Perpetuaand  Felicitas 
St.  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage  ;  and  others  innumerable. 


l.D.  30.3!J0.  SAINTS.  21 


CHAPTER  V 

FRUITS  OF  FAITH  EXEMPLIFIED  IN  THE  LIVES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

A.D.  30-320. 

In  these  ages  the  profession  of  Christianity  was  attended 
with  such  dangers,  and  involved  so  perfect  a  renunciation 
of  this  world,  that  worldly,  sinful,  insincere,  and  even  irre- 
solute men,  were  rarely  found  in  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  The  mass  of  Christians  were  thoroughly  in  earnest, 
full  of  zeal,  and  concentrating  their  hopes  and  their  labours 
in  the  service  of  their  Creator  and  Redeemer.  If  the  Church 
in  latter  ages  seem  less  pure  and  bright,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  world  had  then  ceased  to  persecute  ;  that  it  had 
even  attached  itself  externally  to  religion ;  and  thus,  that  a 
large  number  of  professing  Christians  were  not  in  reality  fol- 
lowers of  our  Lord.  For  what  the  apostle  says — "  He  is  not 
a  Jew  which  is  one  outwardly ;  neither  is  that  circumcision 
which  is  outward  in  the  flesh  :  but  he  is  a  Jew  which  is  one 
inwardly;  and  circumcision  is  that  of  the  heart"* — may  be 
applied  equally  to  the  case  of  Christians.  The  number  of 
the  real  disciples  of  Christ,  who  constitute  the  soul  of  the 
Church,  its  vital  and  undying  members,  has  perhaps  not  been 
less  in  later  ages  than  in  the  times  of  persecution ;  out  the 
number  of  false  brethren,  and  the  multitude  of  scandals,  has 
been  greatly  increased. 

The  lives  of  Christians  during  the  first  three  centuries  ex- 
hibited striking  evidence  of  the  power  of  faith,  and  fulfilfed 
the  divine  precept,  "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men  that 
they  may  see  your  good  works,  and  glorify  your  Father  which 
is  in  heaven."  To  the  morality  and  virtue  of  their  conduct, 
frequent  appeal  was  made  by  the  Christian  apologists. 
"  We,"  says  Justin  Martyr,  "  who  formerly  rejoiced  in  11- 

*■  Rom.  ii.  28, 29. 


22  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  V. 

centiousness,  now  embrace  discretion  and  chastity ;  we  who 
resorted  to  magical  arts,  now  devote  ourselves  to  the  unbe- 
gotten  God,  the  God  of  goodness  ;  we  who  set  our  affections 
on  wealth  and  possessions,  now  bring  to  the  common  stock 
all  our  property,  and  share  it  with  the  indigent ;  we  who, 
owing  to  diversity  of  customs,  would  not  share  the  same 
hearth  with  a  different  race,  nov/,  since  the  appearance  of 
Christ,  live  together,  and  pray  for  our  enemies,  and  endeavour 
to  persuade  those  who  unjustly  hate  us,  that  by  leading  a  life 
conformed  to  the  excellent  precepts  of  Christianity,  they  may 
be  filled  with  the  good  hope  of  obtaining  like  happiness  with 
ourselves  from  that  God  v/ho  is  Lord  above  all  things." 
There  were  many  instances  in  those  times  of  persons  selling 
their  goods,  and  giving  them  to  the  poor,  though  the  prac- 
tice  was  not  general.  It  was  customary  for  all  Christians  to 
receive  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist  every  Sunday ;  in 
some  Churches,  indeed,  especii:.ily  in  time  of  persecution,  it 
was  administered  every  day ;  and  it  was  considered  a  griev- 
ous offence  to  forsake  the  table  of  the  Lord.  The  manners 
and  duties  of  Christians  are  described  by  Tertullian  in  his 
argument  that  Christian  women  ought  only  to  marry  believ- 
ers like  themselves.  A  Christian  marriage,  he  says,  "  is 
made  by  the  Church,  confirmed  by  the  eucharist,  sealed  by 
the  blessing,  carried  by  angels  to  the  heavenly  Father,  and 
ratified  by  him.  Two  believers  bear  the  same  yoke ;  they 
are  but  one  flesh  and  one  spirit ;  they  pray  together,  kneel  to- 
gether, fast  together,  instruct  and  exhort  each  other.  They 
are  together  in  the  Church,  and  at  the  table  of  God  ;  in  per- 
secution and  in  consolation.  They  do  not  conceal  their  actions 
from  each  other,  nor  inconvenience  each  other.  They  may 
visit  the  sick,  and  be  present  at  the  sacrifice  of  prayer  with- 
out inquietude.  They  sing  psalms  and  hymns  together,  and 
excite  one  another  to  praise  God." 

Amongst  the  most  illustrious  saints  and  eminent  men  who 
adorned  the  Church  in  the  first  three  centuries,  we  may  name 
St.  Ignatius,  who  had  been  constituted  bishop  of  Antioch  by 


A.D.  31/-320.  SAINTS.  23 

the  apostles,  and  who,  on  his  being  carried  to 
Rome,  to  suffer  martyrdom,  addressed  many  pi- 
ous epistles  to  the  Christian  Churches,  exhorting  them  to  con- 
fess  the  true  faith,  and  to  remain  united  to  their  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons ;  St.  Justin  Martyr  who  de- 
lencled  tne  Christian  rehgion  against  mndels  and 
Jews ;  St.  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  and  disciple  of  the 
apostle  John,  whose  martyrdom  has  been  described  above ; 
St.  Irenseus,   bishop  of  Lyons,  and  disciple  of 
Polycarp,    who,     having    proved    triumphantly 
against  the  Gnostics  that  there  is   but  one    true    God,  the 
Creator  of  the  world,  and  that  his  Son,  our  Lord,  was  both 
God  and  man,  was  at  last  crowned  with  martyrdom  ;*  the 
learned   defenders  of  Christianity  and  moralists,  Tertullian 
and  Clement,  presbyters  of  Carthage  and  Alexandria ;  Ori- 
gen,  the  most  learned  writer  of  his  time,  a  translator  of  the 
Bible  and  commentator ;  Narcissus  and  Gregory,  bishops  of 
Jerusalem  and  Csesarea,  who  are  said  to  have  had  the  'gift 
of  miracles ;  St.  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage  and  martyr,  a 
man  of  ardent  piety,    zeal,  and  eloquence ;    St.  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,    justly  celebrated  for  his  piety   and 
wisdom,  and  an  exile  for  the  faith  of  Christ  in  the  persecu- 
tion of  Decius. 

We  learn  from  Christian  writers  that  miracles  were  occa- 
sionally performed  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen,  or*to  confirm  the  faith  of  Chris- 
tians. St.  John  Chrysostom  says  that  in  his  time  (the  end 
of  the  'fourth  century)  they  had  ceased.  It  seems  by  no 
means  improbable,  however,  that  God  may  have  permitted 
some  signs  to  have  been  wrought  in  later  ages  for  the  con- 
version of  unbelievers. 

•  [So  some  think,  but  without  sufficient  evidence. — Am.  Ed.] 


24  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  VI 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  THE  COMMUNION,    RITES,  AND  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  CHURCH 

A.D.  30-320. 

No  precept  is  more  frequently  inculcated  in  sacred  Scrip- 
ture than  that  of  mutual  love  and  charity  between  all  Chris, 
tians.     "By  this,"  said  our  Lord,  "shall  all  men  know  that 
ye  are  my  disciples,  if  ye  have  love  one  to  another."^      Br 
their  relation  to  God  as  their  heavenly  Father,  they  are  mac 
brethren  to  one  another;  and  therefore  the  apostolical  '.Ji- 
mand  is,  "Love  as  brethren."     Such  is  the  dutv  ^.  Chris, 
tians ;  they  are  bound  to  regard  all  their  br*?*  ...en  as  mem- 
bers of  the  same  spiritual  body  as  themsp''   :;s ;  and  hence  re- 
sults the  obligation  of  holding  commu''  .on  in  all  possible  re- 
spects v/ith  all  members  of  the  Churc* .  of  Christ.     Our  Lord 
prayed  that  his  disciples  might  be  '-'one;"  the  apostles  ex- 
horted them  to  permit  no  schisms,   no  contentions  among 
them,'  and  to  avoid  those  who  caused  divisions,*  whom  they 
characterised  as  "  sensual,  not  having  the  Spirit."* 

This  communion  of  all  particular  Churches  with  each 
other  as  parts  and  members  of  the  one  great  spiritual  body  or 
society  of  believers,  existed  for  some  ages  in  much  more  per- 
fection than  it  subsequently  did,  when  earthly  ambition  and 
unchristian  feelings  were  engendered  by  prosperity,  and  the 
tares  began  to  grow  thickly  among  the  good  wheat.  In  the 
time  of  the  apostles  it  was  manifested  by  the  reception  and 
admission  to  religious  communion  of  Christians  who  came 
from  other  countries ;  by  contributions  for  the  relief  of  dis- 
tressed believers  in  all  pans ;  and  by  the  exchange  of  letters 
and  advice.  The  same  practices  continued  for  many  ages  to 
be  general.     Each  bishop  then  could  give  to  any  member  of 

>  John  xiii.  3.  s  1  Cor.  i.  10-12. 

•  Rom.  xvi.  17.  18.  «  Jud«  19. 


A.D.  30-320.  COMMUNION.  25 

his  Church  who  might  visit  foreign  countries,  commendatory 
letters,  which,  on  being  presented  to  the  most  remote 
Churches,  secured  his  immediate  admission  to  all  the  privi- 
leges of  Christian  fellowship,  and,  in  case  of  necessity,  to 
the  kind  ofHces  of  Christian  benevolence.  We  have  in  the 
epistle  of  St.  Clement,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  Roman 
Church,  addressed  to  the  Church  of  Corinth,  before  the  end 
of  the  first  century,  on  occasion  of  a  schism  in  the  latter 
Church,  an  instance  of  the  same  fraternal  intercourse  and 
solicitude ;  and  in  the  following  centuries,   the  epistles  of 

Dionysius,    bishop    of  Corinth,     to   many  t^_ 

nu        u        '     V,     .         n     .       x  J  .u   .        about  A.D.  165. 

Churches  m  rontus,  Crete,  oz;c.,    and  that 

of  the  Council  of  Antioch,  to  all  the  Churches,  270 

are  further  examples  of  the  same  practice.    We 

learn  from  Dionysius,  that  even  in  the  second  century,  the 

Church  of  Rome  was  remarkable  for  the  extent  of  its  chari- 

ties  to  the  distressed  and  persecuted  Christians  at  Corinth 

and  in  the  East ;  and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  the  follow 

ing  century,  attests  that  the  same  truly  Chris-  ^47  onr^ 

tian  conduct  was  still  in  full  exercise,  and  that 

its  benefits  were  felt  even  in  the  remote  regions  of  Arabia. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  obligation  of  Christians  to  culti- 
vate  brotherly  love,  the  harmony  of  the  Church  has  but  too 
often  been  interrupted.  Even  in  the  time  of  St.  Paul,  the 
Church  of  Corinth  was  full  of  parties  and  division,  as  it  af- 
terwards was  in  the  time  of  St.  Clement.  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas themselves  separated  and  departed  asunder  from  each 
other.  In  the  second  century  a  serious  division  arose  be- 
tween the  Roman  and  the  Asiatic .  Churches ;  for  when  the 
latter  persisted  in  retaining  their  ancient  custom  of  celebrat. 
Ing  Easter  rather  on  the  same  day  with  the  Jews,  than  with 
the  rest  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Victor,  bishop  of 
Rome  i  proceeded  to  the  extent  of  separating  ^'^' 
them  from  his  communion ;  an  act  which  was  disapproved 
by  St.  Ii*eii2eiis  and  tJie  greater  part  of  the  Church. 


26  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  VI. 

fy-^  In  the  following  century,  a   difference  arose 

between  Stephen,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  Afri- 
can Churches.  The  latter,  headed  by  St.  Cyprian,  bishop  of 
Carthage,  maintained  that  baptisms  performed  by  sectarians 
and  heretics  were  null  and  void,  and  that  all  converts  to  the 
Church  ought  to  be  baptised;  while  the  Roman  Church  did 
not  reiterate  baptism  when  it  had  been  administered  by  here- 
tics with  the  proper  external  form,  but  received  converts  into 
the  Church  by  the  imposition  of  hands  in  confirmation.  The 
practice  of  the  African  Church  was  approved  by  many  of 
the  Eastern  and  Egyptian  Churches,  and  seems  to  have  been 
supported  by  very  strong  reasoning ;  but  Stephen  insisted 
that  the  custom  of  the  Roman  Church  should  be  adopted,  and 
separated  the  African  Churches,  on  their  refusal,  from  his 
communion.  This  act,  however,  was  not  approved  or  re- 
cognised by  the  majority  of  bishops. 

These  dissensions  between  independent  Churches  were  of 
a  very  different  character  from  formal  schisms.     The  former 
consisted  in  a  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  usual  marks  of 
intercourse  between  different  Churches  ;  the  latter  were  sep- 
arations from  the  Church ;  the  establishment  of  rival   wor- 
ship, rival  ministers,  different  communions  in  the  same  place. 
In  the  one  case  charity  was  chilled ;  in  the  other  it  was  en- 
tirely destroyed.     Novatian,  disappointed   of  the  bishopric 
fjr.^        of  Rome,  rebelled  against  his  bisKop,  Cornelius, 
and  established  a  rival  community  at  Rome,  of 
which  he  was  constituted  the  bishop  ;  but  when  the  case  was 
known,  he  was  condemned  by  the  whole  body  of  the  Church 
throughout  the  world,  and  his  sect  was  rejected  as  schismati- 
cal.     In  the  following  century,  the  bishops  of  Numidia,  cn- 
„-,  -        raged  at  the  election  of  Ca^cilianus  to  the  see  of 
Carthage  in  their  absence,    pretended   that  he 
had  been  ordained  by  apostates,  and  having  ordained  rival 
bishops  at  Carthage  and  elsewhere  in  Africa,  separated  from 
the  communion  of  the  universal  Church  (which  supported 
Csecilianus,)  declaring  it  apostate.     These  sectarians,  called 


A.D.  30-320.  RITES.  27 

Donatists,  v/ere,  after  full  examination  of  their  cause  by 
councils  of  bishops,  and  by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  univer- 
sally rejected  and  condemned.  They  continued,  however, 
for  two  or  three  centuries  to  disturb  and  persecute  the  Church 
in  Africa.  Separations  like  these,  where  rival  worship  was 
established,  were  in  those  ages  regarded  as  most  heinous  sins, 
and  destructive  of  salvation. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the  sacraments  and 
rites  of  the  Church.  One  of  the  fullest  and  most  interesting 
details  of  the  celebration  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper 
in  those  days  which  has  been  preserved,  occurs  in  ,  ^.^ 

the  writings  of  Justin  Martyr.  "We  shall  re- 
late," he  says,  "  the  manner  in  which  those  who  sire  renew- 
ed through  Christ,  dedicate  themselves  to  God."  "  As  many 
as  are  persuaded  and  believe  what  is  taught  and  said  by  us 
(Christians,)  and  promise  that  they  will  live  accordingly,  are 
instructed  with  prayer  and  fasting  to  beseech  from  God  the 
remission  of  their  sins ;  we  also  fasting  and  praying  along 
with  them.  Then  we  bring  them  to  a  place  where  there  is 
water,  and  they  are  regenerated  in  the  same  mode  of  regen- 
eration as  that  with  which  we  v/ere  ourselves  regenerated ; 
for  then  they  are  washed  in  water,  in  the  name  of  God  the 
Father  and  Lord  of  all,  and  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  for  Christ  himself  said.  Except  ye 
be  regenerated,  ye  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 
This  was  the  manner  in  which  all  converts  from  heathenism 
were  admitted  into  the  Christian  Church,  and  made  par- 
takers of  all  its  blessed  promises  and  privileges.  When  in- 
fants were  baptised,  the  parents  or  godfathers  made  the 
same  engagements  in  their  name.  The  practice  of  infant 
baptism  was  generally  established  before  the  time  -  „^ 

of  Irenseus*  and  in   that  of  Cyprian  the  ques- 
tion v/as  only  whether  they  ought  to  be  baptised 

♦[Passages  in  the  writings  of  Hermas  (before  a.d.  100  ;)  of  Justin  Mar- 
tyr  (A..D.  150  ;)  and  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (a.d.  200;)  show  that  H 
must  have  prevailed, unquestioned,  in  their  several  ages.— Am.  Ed.J 


28  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOEY.  CH.  VI. 

before  the  eighth  day  after  their  birth.  As  infants  had  been 
admitted  by  circumcision  into  covenant  with  God  under 
the  older  dispensation ;  and  as  our  Lord  had  shown  his  fa- 
vour to  them  by  taking  them  in  his  arms,  blessing  them,  and 
saying,  that  "  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;"  and  as  it  is 
related  that  the  apostles  baptised  whole  households  of  theii 
con^rts — the  Church  always  believed  that  the  children  ot 
Christians  ought  not  to  be  left  in  the  condition  of  heathens, 
but  received  at  once  into  the  Christian  body  by  holy  baptism, 
and  instructed  to  walk  worthy  of  the  high  gifts  which  they 
had  received. 

The  rite  of  Confirmation  followed  that  of  baptism.  The 
apostles  had  laid  their  hands  on  those  who  were  baptised,  in 
order  that  they  might  receive  additional  gifts  of  the  Holy 
200  Grhost ;  and  we  find  from  Tertullian  that  this  cus- 
tom was  still  observed  by  the  bishops,  the  succes- 
sors of  the  apostles,  as  it  has  always  continued  to  be  from 
that  age  to  the  present.  Confirmation  was  generally  admin- 
istered soon  after  baptism ;  and  it  does  not  seem  that  for 
jcnany  centuries  the  discipline  of  the  Church  separated  those 
rites  by  such  an  interval  as  is  now  customary ;  but  it  must 
be  remembered,  that  in  the  first  ages  baptism  was  rarely  ad- 
ministered except  by  the  bishop,  and  at  the  great  festivals  of 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  when  numbers  of  converts  from  hea- 
thenism, who  had  been  for  months  under  catechetical  instruc- 
tion, and  the  children  of  Christians,  were  all  together  bapti- 
sed with  great  solemnity,  and  immediately  afterwards  were 
confirmed. 

"  After  baptism,"  says  Justin  Martyr,  "  we  lead  him  (the 
convert)  to  the  place  where  those  who  are  called  brethren  are 
assembled,  and  prepared  to  offer  earnest  prayers  both  for 
themselves  and  for  those  who  have  been  illuminated  (bap- 
tised,) and  for  all  other  people  every  where,  that  they  may  be 
thought  worthy  to  know  the  truth,  and  be  found  good  men, 
and  keepers  of  the  commandments,  that  they  may  be  saved 
with  an  eternal  salvation.     Having  ceased  from  prayers,  we 


A.D  30-320.  RITES.  29 

salute  each  other  with  a  kiss.  Then  bread,  and  a  cup  of  wine 
and  water  mixed,  is  brought  to  the  president  (bishop*)  of  the 
brethren,  and  he,  taking  them,  offers  praise  and  glory  to  the 
Father  of  all,  through  the  name  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy- 
Spirit,  and  maketh  a  very  long  thanksgiving,  because  He 
hath  thought  us  worthy  of  these  gifts ;  and  when  he  has  con- 
eluded  the  prayers  and  thanksgiving,  all  the  people  present 
approve  it  with  acclamation,  saying.  Amen.  Now  '  amen' 
in  the  Hebrew  tongue  signifies  *  so  be  it.'  " 

"  When  the  president  has  offered  thanksgiving,  and  all  the 
people  responded,  those  who  are  called  deacons  amongst  us 
give  to  every  one  present  a  portion  of  the  bread,  and  of  the 
wine  and  water  which  has  been  blessed,  and  carry  it  to  those 
who  are  not  present.  And  this  food  we  call  the  eucharist, 
of  which  no  one  is  permitted  to  partake  except  he  believes  in 
the  truth  of  our  doctrine,  and  has  been  baptised  in  the  laver 
for  the  remission  of  sins  and  regeneration,  and  lives  so  as 
Christ  has  taught :  for  we  do  not  receive  it  as  common  bread 
or  common  drink ;  but  as,  by  the  word  of  God,  our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ  was  incarnate,  and  had  flesh  and  blood  for  our 
salvation,  so  also  we  have  been  instructed,  that  the  food, 
blessed  by  the  v/ord  of  prayer  which  is  from  him,  through 
which  our  flesh  and  blood  by  a  change  are  nourished,  is 
(spiritually)  the  flesh  and  blood  of  that  incarnate  Jesus.  For 
the  apostles,  in  the  commentaries  written  by  them,  which  are 
called  Gospels,  have  informed  us  that  they  were  commanded 
to  do  so  by  Jesus,  who  took  bread  and  gave  thanks,  and  after 
giving  thanks  said,  *  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  me  ;  this 
is  my  body ;'  and  in  the  same  manner  took  the  cup,  and  hav- 
ing given  thanks,  said,  *  This  is  my  blood,'  and  distributed  it 
to  them  only"  (i.  e.  only  to  believers.) 

"  After  this,"  he  continues,  "  we  always  continually  re- 
mind each  other  of  these  things ;  and  the  rich  assist  the 
poor,  and  we  are  continually  with  each  other.     In  all  our  of- 

•  [Or'officiatiusf  presbyter'.— Am.  Ed.] 

3< 


30  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  V. 

ferings,  we  bless  the  Creator  of  all  things,  through  his  Sor: 
Jesus  Christ,  and  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  And  on  '■he  day 
called  Sunday,  all  who  dwell  in  the  city  or  the  countrj'  as- 
semble in  one  place,  and  the  memorials  of  the  apostles,  and 
the  writings  of  the  prophets,  are  read  as  the  time  permits. 
Then,  when  the  reader  ceases,  the  president  in  a  discourse 
exhorts  and  admonishes  to  the  imitation  of  these  excellent 
precepts.  We  then  all  rise  together,  and  send  up  prayers ; 
and,  as  we  have  said,  when  the  prayers  cease,  bread  is  olUn*- 
ed,  and  wine  and  v/atcr." 

"  But  those  who  are  wealthy  and  so  disposed  contribute 
each  as  he  pleases ;  and  the  collection  is  deposited  with  the 
president,  who  assists  the  orphans  and  widows,  and  those  who 
are  in  want,  through  sickness  or  some  other  cause,  also  those 
who  are  in  prison,  and  guests  who  are  foreigners ;  and,  in 
short,  he  is  the  guardian  of  all  who  are  in  distress.  And  on 
the  Sunday  we  all  assemble  together,  because  it  is  the  first 
day,  on  which  God,  changing  darkness  and  matter,  created 
the  world,  and  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour  on  the  same  daj'-  rose 
from  the  dead." 

In  those  early  times  the  creed  was  used,  as  it  still  is,  as  a 
confession  of  faith  preparatory  to  receiving  the  sacrament  of 
baptism.  When  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  desired  to  be  baptised, 
Philip  said  to  him,  ^'  If  thou  belicvest  witli  all  thine  heart,  thou 
mayest."  And  he  answered  and  said,  "  I  believe  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  Son  of  God."  Here  is  an  instance  of  a  creed, 
or  profession  of  faith,  even  in  the  time  of  the  apostles.  In- 
deed, as  our  Lord  had  required  faith  in  his  doctrines,  as  well 
as  baptism,  in  order  to  salvation,  the  Church  was  bound  to 
ascertain  as  far  as  possible  that  those  v/ho  desired  baptism 
were  believers,  and  therefore  to  require  from  them  a  profes- 
sion of  their  faith.  Creeds  in  this  point  of  view,  as  summa- 
ries of  the  Gospel,  are  as  old  cs  the  time  of  the  apostles ; 
their  length  and  fulness  varied  in  different  Churches,  and 
sometimes  new  articles  were  added,  in  order  to  assert  the 
truth  in  opposition  to  prevalent  heresies.    The  apostles-  creed 


A.-D.  30-320.  DISCIPLINE.  31 

was  the  ancient  baptismal  creed  of  the  Roman  and  Italian 
Churches;  the   Nicene   creed  was  founded  on  the   ancient 
creeds  of  the   Eastern  Churches  by  the  holy  synod  of  31^ 
bishops  at  Nice,  and  was  adopted  as  the  rule  of  0.-^5 

faith  by  the  universal  Church  in  all  subsequent 
times.     This  creed  was  introduced  into  the  liturgy  or  service 
of  the  eucharist  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  apostolical  antiquity  of  creeds 
applies  also  to  liturgies.  It  appears  that,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, there  were  four  forms  of  administering  the  eucharist  in 
existence,  which  had  continued  in  different  parts  of  the  uni- 
versal Church  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  These  forms 
agreed  in  all  their  principal  parts :  their  variety  consisted 
chiefly  in  the  different  order  in  which  those  parts  were  ar- 
ranged. One  form  prevailed  in  Judsea,  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
Macedonia,  Greece ;  and,  in  the  fifth  century,  was  ascribed 
by  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  to  James  the  apostle.  Another, 
which  was  established  by  St.  Mark,  prevailed  in  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia.  A  third,  which  has  been  attributed,  with  some 
probability,  to  St.  John  tlie  apostle,  was  used  in  Ephesus,  and 
afterwards  in  France,  Spain,  and  probably  Britain.  A  fourth 
apostolical  form  existed  in  Rome,  Italy,  and  Africa.  Every 
Church  had  and  exercised  the  power  of  improving  its  liturgy 
by  the  addition  of  new  rites  and  prayers ;  but  all  adhered  to 
the  general  order  and  substance  delivered  from  the  begin- 
ning. The  liturgy  or  service  for  the  holy  communion  now 
used  in  England,*  resembles  the  ancient  Galilean  in  the  most 
essential  points. 

Penitence  was  regarded  as  the  remedy  for  sin  committed 
after  baptism.  It  v/as  generally  taught  that  confession  of  se- 
cret sins  to  God,  with  a  truly  contrite  heart  and  changed  life, 
were  sufficient  to  obtain  remission  of  sins.  In  the  case  of 
sins,  however,  which  were  public  and  caused  scandal,  a  dif- 

*  [And  m  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Churches  of  Ireland,  Scotland  and 
America,  The  forms  of  the  last  two  are  more  full  and  primitive  than  the 
English. — Am.  £d.] 


32  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  ClI.  VI. 

ferent  method  was  pursued.  St.  Paul  had  commanded  the 
Corinthian  Church  to  expel  from  its  communion  a  person  who 
had  committed  a  grievous  and  scandalous  sin,  and  had  en- 
joined them  to  receive  him  again  on  his  sincere  repentance. 
The  Church,  acting  on  this  principle,  excommunicated  any 
of  its  members  who  fell  into  grievous  sin,  unless  they  volun- 
tarily submitted  to  a  lengthened  course  of  penitence.  Peni- 
tence for  seven,  ten,  fifteen,  or  even  twenty  years,  was  re- 
quired for  some  sins,  in  proportion  to  their  enormity  or  scan- 
dal. During  this  period,  the  penitent  first  stood  outside  the 
Church  while  divine  service  was  proceeding ;  then,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  was  admitted  into  the  Church,  but  obliged  to  as- 
sume the  humblest  attitude,  and  forbidden  to  partake  of  the 
eucharist.  During  all  this  time,  he  was  obliged  further  to 
manifest  his  grief  by  fasting,  v/eeping,  mourning,  wearing 
sack-cloth,  and  imploring  the  prayers  of  the  brethren  for  his 
soul.  Such  was  the  severity  of  the  ancient  discipline ;  but 
the  bishop  had  the  power  of  diminishing  the  time,  in  cases 
where  repentance  was  deep  and  manifest.  The  Church  was 
at  length  fully  satisfied,  and  the  penitent  was  then  solemnly 
absolved  and  blessed,  and  admitted  to  the  full  privileges  of 
Christian  fellowship.  The  same  sort  of  penitence  was  re- 
quired from  those  who  had  been  excommunicated  for  their 
'sins,  and  desired  to  return  to  the  Church. 

Those  who  committed  great  sins  in  secret  were  recom- 
mended to  disclose  their  guilt  to  discreet  and  judicious  min- 
isters of  God,  and  receive  from  them  directions  for  the  course 
of  private  penitence  v/hich  they  ought  to  pursue.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  third  century,  a  penitentiary  was  appointed  in 
most  churches,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hear  such  voluntary 
confessions,  and  to  offer  spiritual  advice  to  penitents.  About 
a  century  afterwards,  this  office  was  discontinuc^d  by  Necta- 
rius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  on  occasion  of  the  scandal 
caused  by  an  imprudent  publication  of  a  crime,  through  the 
indiscretion  of  the  penitentiary  of  that  Church ;  and  from 


A.D.  30.320.  DISCIPLINE.  33 

this  time,  private  penitents  in  the  Eastern  Churches  approach- 
ed the  Lord's  table  at  their  own  discretion. 

The  ministry  of  the  Church  instituted  by  the  apostles  con- 
sisted of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  The  apostles  re-  ^^^ 
tained  the  government  of  all  Churches  in  their  ov/n  hands  at  "^^ 
first,  only  appointing  deacons  and  bishops,  or  presbyters  (for  ^ 
these  two  names  are  indiscriminately  used  in  holy  Scripture;) 
but  when  about  to  depart  from  this  world,  they  constituted  ' 
bishops  or  chief  presbyters  "in  their  own  place,"  as  v/e  learn 
from  St.  Irenagus.  Thus  Timothy  was  placed  at  Ephesus, 
Titus  at  Crete,  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  at  Athens,  Linus 
at  Rome,  Anianus  at  Alexandria,  as  Jam.es  had  been  long  be- 
fore appointed  bishop  at  Jerusalem.  Even  the  opponents  of 
episcopacy  admit,  that  by  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
all  Churches  were  governed  by  bishops ;  and,  in  fact,  no  in- 
stance of  any  Church  not  under  episcopal  superintendence 
has  ever  been  pointed  out  in  the  course  of  fifteen  centuries 
after  Christ.  Amongst  Churches,  some  had  pre-eminent  dis- 
tinction from  their  opulence  and  magnitude,  or  the  civil  dis- 
tinctions v/hich  their  cities  enjoyed  ;  and  thus,  in  the  second 
and  third  centui-ies,  the  Churches  of  the  principal  cities,  such 
as  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Carthage, 
were  much  honoured.  All  bishops  and  Churches,  however, 
were  regarded  as  perfectly  equal  in  the  sight  of  God  ;  and  all 
regulated  their  own  affairs,  and  exercised  discipline  with  per- 
fect freedom. 

The  rules  for  the  appointment  of  bishops  and  clergy  were 
various.  In  some  Churches,  the  people  united  with  the  cler 
gy  in  electing  their  bishop ;  in  others,  the  clergy  alone  ap- 
pointed him.  Ordination  followed,  in  which  a  priest  received 
imposition  of  hands  from  one  bishop,  v/hile  a  bishop  was  or 
dained  by  several.  Each  bishop  was  aided  in  his  ministry  by 
presbyters,  or  priests,  and  deacons,  whom  he  generally  con- 
suited  in  important  matters.  The  administration  of  the  re 
venues  of  the  Church  was  under  his  direction,  and  the  dea. 
cons  were  his  almoners. 


34  ECCLESIASTICAL  IISTORY.  CH.  VII. 

Those  who  were  departing  from  this  life  v/ere  strengthened 
by  receiving  the  holy  communion,  which  the  great  council 
„^..       of  Nice     commanded   not  to  be  refused  to  any 
Christian,  who  might  desire  it  in  liis  last  hour. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  FAITH  OF  THE  CHTRCH  DEFENDED  BY  THE  SIX  CECITMENICAL 
SYNODS.  • 

A.D.  ^0-680. 

We  now  enter  on  a  new  period  of  the  Church's  history,  in 
which  temptations  of  a  diiTerent  sort  assailed  her  faith.  The 
times  of  persecution  for  tlie  name  of  Christ  had  now  passed 
away ;  but  the  watchful  enemy  of  man  seized  the  moment 
when  prosperity  began  to  lull  the  Church  into  security,  to  in- 
troducc  errors  which  were  destructive  of  all  true  faith,  and 
which  led  to  persecutions,  divisions,  and  innumerable  calam- 
ities. 

Religion  had  tasted  the  sweets  of  peace  for  a  few  years  af- 
ter the  persecution  of  Diocletian  had  ceased,  and  her  borders 
had  been  enlarged  by  the  conversion  of  the  king  and  people 
of  Armenia  by  St.  Gregory  the  illuminator,  v/hen  the  most 
^^  Q  formidable  heresy  by  which  she  has  ever  been  af- 
flicted made  its  appearance.  The  evil  doctrine 
of  Arius,  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  disturbed  the  Christian 
world  for  fifty  years.  Several  Roman  emperors,  deceived  by 
the  arts  of  one  of  the  most  crafty  and  unprincipled  parties 
that  ever  existed,  threw  the  whole  weight  of  their  authority 
into  its  scale ;  and  sometimes  it  seemed  for  a  moment  trium- 
phant. The  doctrine  of  the  Arians  was,  that  our  Lcrd  Jesus 
Christ  had  been  created,  like  all  other  things,  by  God ;  that 
he  was  not  truly  God,  but  a  creature  liable  to  fall  into  vice 
and  sin     and  that  there  was  a  time  when  he  did  not  exist. 


A.D.  320-539.  ARIANIEM.  35 

To  terminate  the  dispMtes  excited  by  these  blasphemies,  the 
FIRST  cECUMENicAL  SYNOD,  Consisting  of  three  nundred  and 
eighteen  holy  bisiiops,  many  of  v/hom  had  been  confessors 
and  exiles  in  the  timft  of  heathen  persecution,  assembled  at 
Nice,   in  Bithynia,   by  order  of    the    Emperor  g.^- 

Constantine  the  Great,  when  Ariiis  was  heard 
before  all  the  bishops  ;  and  his  doctrine  having  been  fidly  ex- 
amined  and  universally  condemned  as  impious,  he  was  driven 
from  the  communion  of  the  Church  :  and  the  Christian  faith 
was  declared  in  that  celebrated  Nicene  creed,  which  has  ever 
since  been  received  as  the  rule  of  faith  by  all  Christian 
Churches.  In  this  creed  it  was  professed  that  Christ  is  "  of 
the  same  substance"  (homoiision)  with  the  Father,  /.  e.  of  the 
same  real  Godhead, 

This  judgment  was  immediately  approved  and  acted  on 
by  the  whole  Church  dispersed  throughout  the  world ;  and 
even  the  Arian  party  in  the  synod,  not  daring  to  utter  any 
thing  in  opposition  in  the  true  faith,  returned  to  their 
Churches  acquiescing  in  the  decree.  Arius  himself  at  last 
professed  to  believe  in  the  Nicene  faith ;  and  it  was  not  till 
A.D.  341,  that  the  Arians  ventured  to  compose  a  new  creed. 
In  tlie  mean  time,  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  other  leaders 
of  the  Arians,  concealing  their  real  sentiments,  proceeded,  by 
the  aid  of  unjust  accusations,  false  witnesses  and  violence, 
to  depose  and  persecute  the  principal  champions  of  ortho- 
doxy. St.  Athanasius^  vv^ho,  v/hen  a  deacon  at  the  synod 
of  Nice,  had  distinguished  himself  in  opposition  to  Arius, 
and  who  had  been  soon  after  ordained  patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria, became  the  chief  object  of  their  hostility.  The  Em- 
peror Constantino,  deceived  by  Eusebius  of  Nicom.edia,  re- 
quired the  re-admission  of  Arius  to  the  communion  of  the 
Church  at  Alexandria ;  and,  on  the  iirm  refusal  of  Athana- 
sius,  the  Arians  accused  him  to  the  emperor  of  causing  divi* 
sion,  and  of  other  offences.  Athanasius  showed  tliat  his  ac- 
cusers were  unworthy  of  belief.  The  Arians  then  excited 
the  Meletians  (another  sect  which  had  separated  itself  from 


36  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  VII. 

the  Church)  to  charge  him  with  imposing  a  tax  in  Egypt  by 
his  own  authority ;  and,  on  the  faihjre  of  this  accusation,  to 
allege  that  he  had  broken  a  sacred  chalice,  and  put  to  death 
one  of  his  clergy.  But,  on  inquiry,  this  person  was  found 
to  be  still  alive,  having  secreted  liimself  in  consequence  of 
some  offence  which  he  had  committed.  The  Emperor  Con- 
stantino then  wrote  to  Atlianasius,  expressing  his  approbation 
and  confidence  in  him. 

His  enemies,  however,  were  not  discouraged.  They  at 
length  prevailed  on  the  emperor  to  assemble  a  synod  at  Tyre, 
„o  4  where  the  Arian  bishops  alone  were  present :  and 
when  Athanasius  had  proved  that  the  witnesses 
against  him  were  unworthy  of  credit,  and  demanded  time  to 
bring  additional  proofs  of  his  innocence,  the  Arians  became 
so  violent,  that  the  imperial  officers  who  were  present  pri. 
vately  removed  him,  lest  his  life  should  fall  a  sacrifice  to 
their  fury ;  and  he  was  then  condemned,  and  deprived  of  his 
bishopric  in  his  absence.  Athanasius  besought  the  emperor 
to  examine  the  case ;  and  he  accordingly  wrote  to  the  bish- 
ops of  the  synod,  but  was  at  last  persuaded  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  to  banish  Athanasius  to  Treves,  in  Gaul.  When 
Arius  was  about  to  be  admitted  to  communion  at  Constantino- 

r,nn        pie,   by  command  of  the  emperor,  he  died  in  a 
A.D.  33o.       ^    :.    -^        -  ^        ,   ^ 

sudden  and  terrible  manner  ;  and  Constantme 

himself  dying  in  337,  was  succeeded  by  his  sons. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  the  emperor,  his  son  Constan- 
tino, who  ruled  in  Gaul,  permitted  Athanasius  to  return  to 
Alexandria,  and  wrote  to  the  Church  of  that  city,  commend, 
ing  their  bishop  in  the  highest  terms.  But  Athanasius  was 
ere  long  again  expelled  by  the  Emperor  Constantius,  at  the 
„ . ,  request  of  the  Arian  synod  of  Antioch  ;  and  Gre- 
gory, an  Arian,  was  appointed  bishop  in  his 
place.  A  large  body  of  troops  accompanied  the  intruding 
bishop  to  Alexandria,  to  secure  his  peaceful  entrance  into  the 
city,  and  to  expel  Athanasius.  That  holy  bishop  feared  lest 
the  people  should  suffer  on  his  account ;  but  he  commanded 


A.D.   320-680.  ARIANISM;  3'/ 

divine  service  to  be  performed  in  the  church  that  evening ; 
and  when  the  soldiers  had  entered  the  church  to  make  him  a 
prisoner,  he  commanded  a  psahn  to  be  sung ;  and  as  the 
soldiers  waited  till  the  psalm  was  ended,  Athanasius  in  the 
mean  while  escaped  through  the  crowd  of  singers,  and  hid 
iiimself.  For  a  long  time  he  lived  in  a  dark  cavern  of  the 
'jarth,  which  had  formerly  been  a  reservoir  for  water.  His 
habitation  was  known  only  to  those  with  whom  he  dwelt,  and 
to  a  maid  who  was  thought  worthy  to  minister  to  him ;  but 
she  was  tempted  by  the  promises  of  the  Arians,  and  Athana- 
sius  was  about  to  fall  into  their  hands,  when  God  warned 
him  of  his  danger,  and  he  escaped.  He  then  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  appealed  to  the  bishop,  Jivlius ;  and  his  cause  hav- 
ing been  examined  in  a  synod  at  Rome,  he  was  pronounced 
innocent,  and  acknowledged  as  the  lawful  bishop  of  Alex 
andria.  This  judgment  was  soon  after  renewed  by  the  great 
synod  of  Sardica,  which  at  the   same  time  ap-  „  .,- 

proved  the  Nicene  faith,  and  condemned  the 
Arian  party,  who  had  withdrawn  from  it  on  perceiving  the 
sentiments  of  the  majority.  The  cause  of  orthodoxy  now 
obtained  a  temporary  triumph.  The  Emperor  Constans, 
who  ruled  in  the  West,  threatened  to  declare  war  against 
Constantius,  if  Athanasius  was  not  restored  to  his  see ;  and 
accordingly  that  bishop,  with  several  other  of  the  persecut- 
ed orthodox  bishops  of  the  East,  were  restored  to  their 
flocks.  Athanasius  returned  in  triumph,  with  letters  of  the 
highest  recommendation  from  Julius  of  Rome,  from  the  Em- 
peror Constantius,  from  Maximus  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
bishops  of  Palestine.  Even  the  Arian  bishops  Valens 
and  Ursacius,  who  had  been  most  active  in  procuring  his 
condemnation,  acknowledged  that  all  their  charges  had 
been  false,  deplored  their  wickedness,  and  sought  his  com- 
munion. 

The  eastern  Church,  however,  was  still  troubled  by  the 
presence  of  Arian  bishops,  though  many  prelates,  and  the 
people  generally,  h€ld  the  true  faith.     The    western  Church 

4 


38  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORl'.  CH.  VII- 

was  generally  orthodox  ;  and  for  some  time  after  the  synod 
of  Sardica,  the  ¥/estern  and  Eastern  Churches  were  sepa- 
rated from  communion  on  account  of  St.  Athanasius.  The 
favourable  prospects  of  true  religion  became  speedily  over- 
clouded again.  The  Arians  continued  their  machinations, 
under  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  Constantius ;  and,  in 
358  and  355,  caused  synods  to  be  assembled  at  Aries  and  at 
Milan,  in  which,  by  force  and  fraud,  the  condemnation  of 
St.  Athanasius  and  other  orthodox  bishops  was  again  obtain- 
ed. The  emperor  had  twice  sent  messengers  to  bring  him 
to  Milan  ;  but  the  people  of  Alexandria  would  not  permit  him 
to  leave  the  city,  well  knowing  the  dangers  which  awaited 
him  there.  Troops  were  then  marched  from  Egypt  and  Li- 
bya to  seize  him ;  but  when  they  had  surrounded  the  church 
in  which  he  was,  he  again  disappeared  ;  and  was  not  to  be 
found.  An  Arian,  named  George,  was  ordained  bishop  in 
his  place. 

It  was  at  this  time,  perhaps,  that  St.  Athanasius  again  had  a 
remarkable  escape  from  his  enemies.  While  he  was  sailing 
up  the  Nile  into  the  interior  of  Egypt,  his  persecutors,  hear- 
ing of  it,  followed  him ;  but  he,  being  admonished  of  God, 
informed  his  companions  of  their  danger,  and  commanded 
them  to  return  to  Alexandria.  They  accordingly  turned 
about,  and  coming  with  the  stream,  passed  the  pursuing  ship, 
arrived  safe  in  the  city,  and  remained  unobserved  in  the 
crowd.  On  account  of  these  wonderful  escapes,  he  was  ac- 
cused by  the  Arians  and  Gentiles  of  practising  magic. 

When  the  great  object  of  their  dread  had  been  thus  re- 
moved, the  Arians  began  more  openly  to  attempt  the  de- 
struction of  the  Nicene  faith.  They  had  already  composed 
several  creeds  more  or  less  unsound,  and  capable  of  Arian 
interpretations ;  but  they  now  framed  a  new  formula,  in 
which  the  Divinity  of  Christ  was  apparently  asserted  strong- 
ly, while  it  really  admitted  of  an  interpretation  favourable 
to  Arian  views ;  and  having  induced  the  emperor  to  assem- 
ble the  bishops  of  the  West,  to  the  number  of  four  hundred, 


A.D.  320-680.  ARIANISM.  39 

„^Q  at  Ariininum,  in  Italy,  they  proposed  it  for  their 
adoption.  The  synod,  however,  immediately 
required  the  Arian  bishops  to  subscribe  the  Nicene  creed, 
and  deposed  those  who  refused  to  do  so ;  and  it  was  only  af- 
ter they  had  been  wearied  out  by  a  delay  of  many  months, 
intimidated  by  the  threats  of  the  emperor,  and  solemnly  as- 
sured by  the  Arians  that  they  received  the  creed  in  the  or- 
thodox sense,  that  the  bishops  at  last  gave  way,  and,  in 
hopes  of  securing  peace,  permitted  the  omission  of  the  term. 
homousion  ("  of  the  same  substance,")  which  occurred  in  the 
Nicene  creed.  The  majority  of  the  bishops,  too,  either  de- 
ceived or  intimidated,  subscribed  the  new  creed ;  but  the 
deception  was  soon  discovered.  The  Arians  proclaimed 
every  vv^here  that  the  Nicene  faith  was  condemned,  and  an- 
nounced their  own  interpretation  of  the  creed  lately  adopt- 
ed.  But  though  heresy  seemed  for  a  moment  triumphant,  it 
was  soon  to  be  overthrown.  France  and  Italy,  roused  by 
the  celebrated  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  who  returned  from 
his  exile  in  the  East,  declared  their  adherence  „g 

to  the  true  faith,    annulled  the   proceedings  at 
Ariminum,  expelled  the  Arians  from  communion,  and  trans- 
mitted their  resolutions  to  the  orthodox  bishops  of  the  East. 
Egypt   was  already  proclaiming  its   agreement  with   their 
faith ;  for  on  the  death  of  Constantius,  Athana-  ^^^ 

sius  re-appeared  suddenly  in  the  church  of  Alex- 
andria, after  having  entirely  disappeared  for  seven  years, 
during   which   he   had  dwelt  among  the  monks  in  Upper 
Egypt.      When  he  thus,  beyond  all   expectation,  appeared 
again,  the  people  of  Alexandria  rejoiced  with  exceeding  joy, 
and  delivered  all  the  churches  to  him,  expelling  the  Arians. 
At  the  same  time,  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari,  and  Eusebius 
of  VercellsB,  returned  from  the  Upper  Thebais,  where  Con- 
stantius had  condemned  them  to  perpetual  exile  for  their 
faith ;  and  Eusebius  was  present  in  the  synod  of      ^  ^  gg^ 
Alexandria,  held  by  Athanasius  to  confirm  the 
Nicene  creed.     When    the   emperor,  Julian  the    Apostate, 


40  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  CH.  VII. 

heard  that  St.  Athanasius  was  again  in  Alexandria,  and  thai 

he  was  converting  many  of  the  heathen  to  Christianity,  he 

commanded  him  to  leave  tiie  city.     When  departing  from 

his  see,  and  beholding  the  people  weeping  around  him,  he 

said,  "  Take  courage  ;  this  is  but  a  little  cloud,  which  shall 

quickly  pass  away."     And  so  indeed  it  proved:  for  on  the 

„^„       accession  of  Jovian,    Athanasius    was  restored 
A.D.  333.  ,  .  ,         .^\ 

to  his  see,  and  testified  to  that  orthodox  emperor, 

that  the  true  faith  was  then  received  in  all  the  Churches  of 
Spain,  Britain,  Gaul,  Italy,  Dalmatia,  Dacia,  Mysia,  Mace- 
donia, Greece,  Africa,  Sardinia,  Cyprus,  Crete,  Pamphylia, 
Syria,  Isauria,  Egypt,  Libya,  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  and  in  all 
the  East.  Many  councils  of  bishops  successively  confirmed 
the  orthodox  faith ;  and  even  those  bishops  of  the  East  who 
were  called  Semi-Arians  from  their  not  adopting  the  word 
homoiislon,  and  who  had  been  deceived  by  the  real  Arians, 
but  whose  faith  differed  not  from  that  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
now  united  in  the  universal  acceptance  of  the  Nicene  faith. 
Thus  the  Arian  heresy,  when  it  seemed  most  prosperous, 
suddenly  fell ;  and,  after  lingering  for  a  time  under  the  protec- 

r>n  1  Q-yo        tion  of  the  Emperor  Valens,  and  afterwards 
A.D.  oo-i-o/o.  1       1       1  -1  11 

amongst  the  barbarous   nations  beyond  the 

Roman  empire,  it  disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  protection  vouchsafed  by  God  to  the  true  faith  was 
never  more  wonderfully  exemplified  than  in  the  existence  and 
final  triumph  of  the  Nicene  creed.  Craft  and  violence  alike 
failed  to  overthrow  the  belief  of  the  Church.  The  truth  is, 
that  this  heresy  had  never  been  able  to  take  deep  root  in  the 
Church.  Arian  bishops  in  the  East  governed  a  people  whose 
pious  simplicity  v/as  unable  to  detect  errors  veiled  under  the 
guise  of  orthodox  language :  but  when,  at  length,  the  real 
tenets  of  the  Arians  began  to  be  more  openly  developed,  and 
when  the  multiplication  of  creeds,  and  their  internal  divi- 
sions, had  shown  the  uncertainty  of  their  faith,  and  when  the 
patronage  of  the  state  was  withdrawn  from  their  cause,  they 
fell  at  once. 


A.D  320-680.  MACEDONIUS.  41 

While  the  Arian  impiety  was  falling,  the  enemy  of  man 
was  engaged  in  drawing  forth  from  it  a  new  temptation  for 
the  faith  of  the  Church.  All  Christians  had  hitherto  belie v- 
ed  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  truly  the  Spirit  of  God  ;  but  the 
Arian  Macedonius  taught  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  merely  a 
creature  made  by  the  Son,  contrary  to  the  words  of  Christ, 
who  described  him  as  the  "  Spirit  of  truth,  which  proceedeth 
from  the  Father."  This  doctrine  was  condemned  as  anti- 
Christian  by  many  councils  in  Europe  and  Asia,  but  especi- 
ally by  the  council  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops  at  Con 
stantinople,  assembled  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  in  a.d. 
381,  and  which,  having  been  ever  since  universally  approved 
by  the  Church,  has  been  termed  the  second  cecumenical 
SYNOD.  On  this  occasion  the  Nicene  creed  was  enlarged,  in 
order  to  express  the  belief  of  Christians  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  truly  God. 

The  Macedonian  heresy  had  not  many  adherents,  and  did 
not  long  continue  to  trouble  the  Church  ;  but  the  disputatious 
and  proud  spirit  of  Arianism  had  engendered  a  brood  of  er- 
rors. Sabellianism  re-appeared  in  the  person  of  Photinus ; 
while  ApoUinaris  denied  that  our  Lord  possessed  a  human 
reasonable  soul.  These  errors  were  universally  condemned, 
and  their  authors  were  numbered  with  the  heretics. 

Though  religion  was  suffering  so  grievously  from  the  dis- 
turbances excited  by  heresies,  it  continued  to  expand  itself 
among  the  heathen.  Ethiopia  was  now  converted  by  Fru- 
mentius,  who  was  consecrated  the  first  bishop  of  the  Ethio- 
pians by  St.  Athanasius.  The  natives  of  Georgia,  or  Iberia, 
and  the  Goths  of  Thrace,  Moesia,  and  Dacia,  also  received 
the  light  of  the  Gospel.  St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  com- 
pleted the  conversion  of  the  Gauls,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
the  gift  of  miracles.  Thus  did  that  grain  of  mustard-seed 
sown  by  Christ  continue  to  increase. 

The  Chur^'i  was  now  threatened  with  new  afflictions  and 
adversities,  in  the  decay  of  the  Roman  empire.  Attracted 
by  the  prospect  of  an  easy  spoil,  the  barbarian  nations  of  the 

4* 


4S  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  VII. 

Goths,  Heruli,  Vandals,  Huns,  Franks,  Saxons,  precipitated 
themselves  successively  on  a  luxurious  and  unwarlike  popu- 
lation ;  and  scenes  of  the  most  dreadful  carnage  and  destruc- 
tion overspread  every  province  of  the  falling  empire.  The 
greatest  portion  of  its  possessions  in  the  West  became  the 
prey  of  the  invaders ;  and  the  Churches  of  Britain,  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  groaned  beneath  the  yoke  of  hea- 
then or  Arian  conquerors.  In  Africa,  the  Vandals,  who  were 
Arians,  endeavoured  to  extirpate  the  true  faith  by  most 
cruelly  persecuting  its  defenders,  and  by  prohibiting  all  or- 
dinations to  the  sacred  ministry.  These  savage  invaders  were 
gradually  converted  from  their  errors  ;  but  the  destruction  of 
learning  which  they  caused  exercised  a  permanently  evil  in- 
fluence on  Christianity.  Ignorant  themselves,  and  despising 
all  literature,  they  were  devoted  only  to  war  and  to  the 
chase  ;  and  even  their  conversion  to  Christianity  effected  no 
alteration  in  the  national  character  and  tastes.  Hence  edu- 
cation was  despised,  the  most  ordinary  literary  attainments 
neglected,  and,  as  a  sure  result,  superstitions  were  gradually 
introduced,  and  found  too  ready  an  acceptance. 

While  Christianity  was  suffering  grievous  afflictions  and 
persecutions  from  the  barbarians,  the  torch  of  discord  was 
again  lighted  by  the  heretic  Pelagius,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  Pelagius  denied  that  human  nature  is  inclined  to 
evil,  or  that  man  needs  the  assistance  of  divine  grace  to  lead 
and  assist  him  to  perform  good  works.  This  doctrine  was 
most  strenuously  opposed  by  the  illustrious  St.  Augustine, 
bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa,  and  was  condemned  by  many 
councils  in  the  East  and  West,  especially  by  a  council  of  two 
417  I'^undred  bishops  at  Carthage,  the  decrees  of 
which  were  generally  approved  by  the  Church. 
This  council  excommunicated  all  those  who  taught  that  Adam 
was  naturally  mortal,  so  that  death  was  not  the  punishment  of 
sin ;  or  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  baptise  infants ;  or  that  they 
do  not  derive  from  Adam  any  original  sin  which  needs  to  be 
expiated  by  regeneration ;    or  that  the  words  of  St.   John, 


A.D.  320-680.  NESTORIUS.  43 

"If  we  say  that  we  have  no  sin,  we  deceive  ourselves,"  are 
merely  to  be  understood  as  an  expression  of  humility,  not  as 
the  declaration  of  a  real  fact :  for,  as  the  decree  adds,  "  the 
following  words  of  the  apostle,  'But  if  we  confess  our  sins, 
He  is  faithful  and  just  to  forgive  us  our  sins,  and  to  cleanse 
us  from  all  unrighteousness,'  show  sufficiently  that  they  were 
not  mere  expressions  of  humility,  but  of  truth."  The  heresy 
of  Pelagius  was  finally  condemned  in  the  third  oecumenical 
synod,  of  which  I  am  about  to  speak. 

Nestorius^  a  vain  and  arrogant  man,*  being  ordained  to 
the  patriarchal  see  of  Constantinople,  declaimed  violently 
against  the  title  of  Theotokos,  applied  by  ancient  piety  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  signifying  that  she  was  the  mother  of  our 
God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, — and  taught  that  God  the 
Word  and  the  man  Christ  Jesus  were  different  persons  under 
the  same  appearance.  This  was  contrary  to  the  Scripture, 
which  said  that  "the  Word  was  made  flesh,"  and  that  God 
"  purchased  the  Church  with  his  own  blood  ;"  implying  evi- 
dently that  one  and  the  same  person,  who  was  both  God  and 
man,  had  died  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  A  council  of  two 
hundred   bishops   at   Ephesus,    and   which   the  .oi 

Church  reckons  as  the  third  (ecumenical  synod, 
condemned  the  errors  of  Nestorius ;  and  the  decision,  though 
disputed  for  a  short  time.by  the  bishops  of  Syria  under  some 
feelings  of  jealousy,    was   speedily  adopted   by  the  whole 
Christian  world. f     St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  had  the  honour 

*  [Nestorius  hardly  has  justice  done  him,  by  this  statement.  Fear  of  the 
Apollinarian  heresy,  and  a  predilection  for  the  peculiar  tenets  and  interpre- 
tations of  the  Antiochian  school,  made  him  over  tenacious  in  opposition  to 
phraseology  adopted  by  the  Alexandrian  school:  but  the  most  accurate  in- 
vestigations leave  little  room  for  doubt  that  he  did  not  teach  the  heretical 
doctrine  afterwards  put  forth  by  some  Vv'ho  took  part  in  the  dispute,  and  bore 
his  name. — Am.  Ed.] 

t  [The  ''decision"  of  the  Council  was,  more  properly  speaking,  its  tesH- 
mony  to  the  fact  that  the  Church  had  always  held  the  doctrine  of  the  union 
of  the  Divine  and  human  natures  in  the  one  person  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  From 
\his  testimony  the  Bishops  of  Syria  did  not  dissent.    Their  diiTerence  was 


44  ECCLESIASTIGAL  HISTORY.  CH.  VII. 

of  being  the  principal  opponent  of  this  heresy.*  The  adhe- 
rents of  Nestorius,  being  banished  from  the  Roman  empire, 
obtained  an  establishment  from  the  King  of  Persia,  and  have 
continued  to  exist  as  a  distinct  sect  even  to  the  present  day. 

In  opposing  the  errors  of  Nestorius,  some  persons  fell  into 
the  opposite  error  of  confounding  the  divine  and  human  na- 
tures of  our  Lord.  Eutyches,  an  abbot  at  Constantinople, 
taught  that  in  Jesus  Christ  was  but  one  nature,  compounded 
of  the  divine  and  human  natures ;  so  that,  according  to  his 
doctrine,  our  Lord  was  not  properly  either  God  or  man,  but 
a  sort  of  third  being  between  the  two,  of  a  mixed  and  com- 
pounded nature.  Deposed  for  this  heresy  by  many  bishops 
at  Constantinople,  he  was  irregularly  restored  by  a  synod 
a-t  Ephesus,  which  under  the  direction  of  Dioscorus,  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  acted  with  the  most  savage  violence  against 
the  defenders  of  orthodoxy.  Tii?:  fourth  cecumenical 
SYNOD  of  Chalcedon,  consisting  of  six  hundred  and  thirty 
.^,  bishops,  finally  judged  in  this  cause,  and  having 
condemned  Dioscorus  and  Eutyches,  established 
the  true  and  sound  doctrine  of  the  Church,  derived  from 
holy  Scripture,  and  taught  by  St.  Leo,  bishop  of  Rome,  in 
his  celebrated  epistle, — i.  e.  that  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Chrisi 
there  are  two  perfect  and  distinct  natures,  the  Godhead  and 
manhood,  united  in  one  person,  without  mixture,  change,  or 
confusion.  This  doctrine  was  immediately  approved  and 
accepted  by  the  great  body  of  Christians  throughout  the 
world,  and  has  so  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  adhe- 
rents of  Dioscorus,  called  Monophysites  (z.  e.  upholders  of 
the  one  nature,)  or  Jacobites,  abounded  in  Egypt  and  Syria 
and  their  sect  has  survived  in  those  countries  till  the  present 
day. 

The  Church   was  consoled  under  these  various  afflictions 

on  the  personal  question,  whether  Nestorius  and  others  did  heretically  de- 
part from  the  doctrine  of  the  Church. — Am.  Ed.] 

♦  [But  not  without  sullying  himself  by  the  use  of  very  unbefitting  means. 
—Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.  320-680.  MONOPHYSITES.  45 

by  the  conversion  of  several  heathen  nations.  The  natives 
of  Libanus  and  of  a  portion  of  Arabia  were  converted  by  the 
persuasions  and  authority  of  St.  Simeon  Stylites.  The  apos- 
tolical  labours  of  St.  Patrick  were  rewarded  by  the  con- 
version  of  the  Irish  nation  to  Christianity.  Palladius  had 
been  previously  ordained  to  the  same  mission  by  Ccelestinus, 
bishop  of  Rome  ;*  but  dying  soon,  was  succeeded  by  St. 
Patrick.  The  Gospel  had  indeed  already  some 
adherents  in  that  country,  but  Christianity  now  ^'^'  ^^^* 
became  general,  and  for  the  next  four  or  five  centuries  learn- 
ing  and  religion  shed  a  bright  lustre  on  that  remote  island, 
when  barbarism  and  ignorance  prevailed  over  the  rest  of 
Europe.  The  Church  of  Ireland  during  these  ages  remain- 
ed independent,  and  was  not  subject  to  the  papal  jurisdiction. 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  founder  of  the  French  mon- 
archy,  received  baptism,  with  many  of  his  people,  from  Re- 
migius,  bishop  of  Rheims,  a.d.  496. 

The  East  still  remained  troubled  by  the  remains  of  the 
Eutychian  heresy,  and  the  West  was  subject  to  the  dominion 
of  savage  nations,  who  either  rejected  Christianity,  or  were 
imbued  with  the  Arian  heresy, — when  a  controversy  arose  in 
the  East  concerning  certain  writings  of  Theodorus,  Ibas,  and 
Theodoret,  which  supported  the  Nestorian  heresy,  and  which 
were  used  by  its  adherents  to  promote  their  views.  A  coun- 
cil of  one  hundred  and  sixty  bishops,  assembled  at  Constan- 
tinople  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  and  which  the 
Church  acknowledges  as  the  fifth  (ecumenical  ^'°*  ^^^' 
SYNOD,  condemned  these  writings  and  various  errors  of  the 
Nestorians,  and  approved  all  the  doctrine  of  the  four  preced- 
ing  (ecumenical  synods.  This  synod  was  thus  a  sort  of  sup- 
plement  to  the  third  oecumenical  synod.     It  was  immediately 

♦  [This  is  extremely  doubtful :  or  rather,  almost  certainly  untrue.  That 
both  Palladius  and  Patrick  preached  in  Ireland,  early  in  the  5th  century,  is 
certain.  That  neither  of  them  had  any  direct  connexion  with  Rome,  is  in 
the  highest  degree  probable.  All  else  is  inextricably  involved  in  doubt.— 
Am.  Kd.1 


46  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  VII. 

received  by  the  great  body  of  the  Church,  though  some 
bishops  in  Africa  and  Italy  for  a  time  did  not  acknowledge  it ; 
as  they  supposed,  through  mistake,  that  the  writings  of  Theo- 
dore and  Theodoret  had  been  approved  by  the  synod  of  Chal- 
cedon. 

Britain  had  now  been  for  many  years  subject  to  the  Saxons, 
who  gradually  subdued  the  Christian  inhabitants,  and  formed 
settlements  among  them.  These  invaders,  however,  still 
remained  in  their  heathenism,  when  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
bishop  of  Rome,  commiserating  their  condition,  sent  St. 
Augustine  and  other  pious  brethren  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
this  country.  Arriving  about  590,  he  founded  several 
Christian  churches  ;  but  the  conversion  of  the  Saxons  to  the 
faith  was  chiefly  due  to  several  holy  bishops  and  missionaries 
from  Ireland  in  the  following  century.  The  ancient  churches 
of  the  Britons  which  still  continued,  as  well  as  the  Irish 
churches,  were  not  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop 
of  Rome  ;  nor  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  for  several  cen- 
turies,  though  much  reverence  was  felt  for  the  ancient  and 
celebrated  Church  of  Rome,  and  much  assistance  derived 
from  it  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence. 

In  the  seventh  century,  a  heresy  began  to  be  advocated, 
which,  like  the  Eutychian,  endangered  the  doctrine  of  the 
perfect  divinity  and  perfect  humanity  of  our  Lord:  for  it 
was  now  asserted,  that,  after  the  incarnation,  there  was  but  one 
will  in  our  Lord, — that  of  the  incarnate  God.  But  it  is 
plain,  that  if  we  admit  the  doctrine  of  two  perfect  natures, 
each  possessed  of  all  its  distinctive  capacities  and  faculties, 
the  doctrine  of  two  wills,  the  divine  and  human,  immediately 
follows.  If  this  latter  doctrine  be  denied,  then  the  doctrine 
of  two  natures  cannot  be  maintained  ;  so  that  the  Monothe- 
lites,  who  did  deny  that  two  wills  perfectly  united  and  har- 
monious, exist  in  our  Lord,  were  only  a  branch  of  the  Eu- 
tychians.  After  a  struggle,  which  continued  for  more  than  half 
a  century,  the  Monothelite  heresy,  and  its  supporters,  Theo- 
dore of  Pharan,  Sergius,  Pyrrhus,  Paul  and  Peter  of  Con- 


A.D.  320-680.  MONOTHELITES.  47 

stantinople,  Honorius,  bishop  of  Rome,  Cyrus  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  others,  were  condemned  in  the  sixth  (ecumenical 
SYNOD  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  bishops,  held  at  Constan- 
tinople by  order  of  the  Emperor  Constantino  Pogonatus 
in  680. 

The  circumstance  of  Honorius  of  Rome's  condemnation 
for  heresy  by  this  synod,  which  has  been  clearly  established 
by  Bossuet,  and  many  other  of  the  most  eminent  Romish 
controversialists,  affords  an  irresistible  proof  that  the  bishops 
of  Rome  were  not  infallible  in  faith ,**and  that  the  universal 
Church^has  never  acknowledged  them  to  be  so.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  sixth  oecumenical  synod  was  the 
last  which  could  justly  claim  the  title  of  universal,  or  pre 
tend  to  represent  the  judgment  of  the  whole  Church.  The 
succeeding  synods,  which  are  styled  universal  by  Romanists, 
have  never  been  acknowledged  by  the  whole  Eastern  and 
Western  Church,  as  the  early  synods  were.^  The  seventh 
synod,  as  it  is  called,  remained  rejected  by  the  Western 
Church  up  to  the  fourteenth  century.  The  eighth  and  fol- 
lowing synods  have  been  always  rejected  by  the  Eastern 
Churches,  even  to  the  present  day. 

Whilst  the  Monothelite  heresy  was  disturbing  the  Church, 
the  false  prophet  Mahomet  and  his  followers  were  ^  ^  512 
conquering  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  eastern 
empire,  and  extending  their  triumphs  through  Egypt,  and 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa.  In  Egypt  and  the  East 
the  invaders  were  assisted  by  the  Eutychian  and  Nestorian 
heretics,  and  their  religion  received  a  degree  of  favour 
which  was  denied  to  the  Church.  Persecution  at  length 
assailed  the  faith  of  Christians;  and  the  result  was,  that 
in  Africa,  after  four  or  five  centuries,  we  hear  no  more  of 
those  five  hundred  episcopal  sees  which  had  formerly  shed 
light  o  1  that  region.  In  the  East,  Christianity  slowly  de- 
clined .mder  oppression  and  persecution ;  but  it  was  always 

» See  Palmer's  Treatise  on  the  Church,  vol.  ii.  p.  200-249 


48  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  VIII. 

preserved;  and  after  the  lapse  of  twelve  nundred  years, 
there  are  still  many  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, and  Egypt,  though  they  bear  but  a  small  proportion  to 
the  eight  hundred  episcopal  churches  which,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury,  existed  in  those  countries. 

The  decline  of  Christianity  in  the  East  and  Africa  was, 
however,  very  gradual,  and  the  Church  beheld  the  spread 
of  the  Gospel  amongst  many  other  nations.  Christianity 
was  now  subduing  the  remnants  of  paganism  in  England,  and 
exciting  there  and  in  Ireland  a  spirit  of  apostolical  zeal, 
which  disseminated  the  light  of  truth  among  many  barba- 
rous  nations  in  the  west  of  Europe.  The  Suevi,  IBoii,  and 
Franks  of  Germany  were  converted  by  St.  Columban,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventh  century.  St.  Gall  became  the 
apostle  of  Switzerland ;  St.  Kilian,  of  the  eastern  Franks ; 
and  St.  Willibrord,  and  his  companions,  of  Batavia,  Fries- 
land,  and  Westphalia.  These  holy  missionaries  were  all 
natives  of  Ireland,  exceot  the  last,  who  was  an  Anglo-Saxon. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


FRUITS  OF  FAITH  EXEMPLIFIED  IN  THE  SAINTS  AND  MARTYRS. 

A.D.  320-680. 

We  have  now  seen  the  oromises  of  our  Saviour  verified 
in  the  continual  existence  of  his  true  Church,  amidst  the  ter- 
rors of  persecution  and  the  temptations  of  heresy.  We  have 
seen  it  expanding  itself  "  from  the  river  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth;"  and  though  in  some  branches  "  minished  and 
brought  low,"  yet  containing  a  principle  of  vitality  which 
enabled  it  to  repair  its  losses  by  new  and  vigorous  shoots. 
We  have  seen  those  great  truths  which  Scripture  teaches 
unanimously  and  firmly  maintained  during  this  period.     Let 


A.D.  320-680.  FRUITS  OF  FAITH.  49 

US  now  contemplate  the  fruits  which  that  faith  continued  to 
produce. 

The  holy  men  of  this  period  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  :  those  who  spent  their  time  in  a  private  religious  life, 
and  those  who  were  engaged  in  the  ministry  of  the  Church. 
I  shall  mention  some  of  the  most  remarkable  men  in  each 
class  successively. 

Many  of  the  most  truly  pious  and  holy  men  whom  these 
ages  produced,  were  among  those  who  lived  retired  from  the 
world,  and  who  were  engaged  solely  in  the  service  of  God. 
A  life  entirely  devoted  to  religion,  and  separated  from  all  do- 
mestic cares,  pleasures,  and  occupations,  had  been  the  cha- 
racteristic of  the  ascetics  and  sacred  virgins*-  even  from  the 
time  of  the  apostles ;  but  the  monastic  or  solitary  life  was 
first  exhibited  on  a  broad  scale  by  Antony  and  his  disciples 
in  Egypt,  at  the  latter  end  of  the  third  and  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century. 

In  the  present  age  it  is,  perhaps,  difficult  to  appreciate 
justly  the  religious  character  of  ascetic  religion  in  the  early 
Church.  The  monastic  system  of  later  ages,  with  its  wealth, 
its  indolence,  the  spirit  of  superstition  or  of  worldly  intrigue 
which  have  too  frequently  disgraced  it,  not  to  speak  of  still 
more  unworthy  and  degrading  faults,  has  but  too  justly  ex- 
cited the  strongest  feelings  of  disapprobation.  But  we  should 
do  an  injustice  to  the  Christian  Church  generally,  if  we  ima- 
gined that  such  corruptions  originally  prevailed  ;  or  that  the 
saints  and  martyrs  lent  their  countenance  to  institutions, 
which  were  either  in  contradiction  to  the  holy  Scripture,  or 
injurious  to  Christian  piety,  charity,  and  devotion. 

The  Christian  who  best  knows  his  own  heart  will  most 
deeply  feel  the  continual  tendency  of  the  world,  with  all  its 
busy  thoughts  and  interests,  to  deaden  his  sense  of  religion, 
and  to  withdraw  him  from  the  love  and  service  of  his  Crea- 

*  [These  certainly  did  not  exist  as  distinct  classes  before  the  end  of  the 
second  century  j  nor  even  then,  in  any  thing  resembling  the  form  of  monk- 
ery.— Am.  Ed.] 

5 


5D  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.   VIII. 

tor.  He  will  feel  that  even  the  best  and  purest  sympathies 
of  life  require  the  chastening  influence  of  solemn  recollec- 
tions and  self-denial,  to  prevent  their  becoming  hindrances  in 
the  way  of  his  salvation.  Our  Lord  has  said,  "  He  that  loveth 
father  or  mother  more  than  me,  is  not  worthy  of  me ;  and  ho 
that  loveth  son  or  daughter  more  than  me,  is  not  worthy  of 
me.  And  he  that  taketh  not  up  his  cross  and  foUoweth 
after  me,  is  not  worthy  of  me." 

It  was  this  that,  in  those  early  ages,  led  many  earnest 
Christians,  who  felt  their  own  infirmities,  and  sought  for  sal- 
vation, to  relinquish  the  world,  its  wealth,  its  pleasures,  its 
business  and  temptations,  and  to  retire  into  quiet  places,  far 
from  the  noise  of  cities  and  the  ordinary  haunts  of  men, 
where  the  labour  of  their  own  hands  procured  for  them  the 
simplest  food  on  which  human  life  could  be  sustained,  and 
garments  proportioned  at  once  to  their  poverty  and  the  hu- 
mility  of  their  spirit.  Thus  having  fulfilled  the  apostolic 
precept,  to  "  work,"  and  content  with  food  and  raiment,  thp 
simple  objects  to  which  Christ  limited  his  disciples'  earth 
wishes,  they  devoted  their  lives  to  repentance,  to  rigorous 
self-examination,  to  prayer  and  psalmody,  to  the  study  of 
God's  word,  to  the  continual  reception  of  the  sacrament  of 
Christ's  body  and  blood,  to  works  of  charity  towards  the 
sick  and  afflicted ;  in  a  word,  to  all  the  parts  of  a  life  en- 
tirely religious,  and  to  continual  preparation  for  death.  They 
literally  followed  the  advice  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples, 
*'Sell  that  ye  have,  and  give  to  the  poor;"  and  after  the 
example  of  our  Lord  and  of  his  apostle  St.  Paul,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  advice  to  those  who  were  "  able  to  beai 
it,"  they  refrained  from  the  permitted  and  honourable  state 
of  marriage,  that  they  might  "  care  for  the  things  of  the 
Lord;  that  they  might  be  holy  both  in  body  and  in  spirit."* 
And  who  can  be  so  cold  and  so  uncharitable  as  to  feel  no 
sympathy  with  this  holy  zeal,  this  self-denying  love  of  a>d  ? 

♦  I  Cor.  vii.  34. 


A.D.  320-680.  ANTONY.  51 

The  contemplation  of  such  instances  of  earnest  religion 
ought  rather  to  provoke  us  to  a  godly  jealousy,  to  induce 
contrition  for  our  own  want  of  zeal,  and  to  stimulate  ou^ 
faith.  Those  deeds  of  Christian  devotion,  the  recital  of 
which  so  deeply  affected  the  eloquent  and  profound  St.  Au 
gustine,  and  which  were  made  the  immediate  instrument  of 
his  conversion,  cannot  be  unworthy  the  attention  of  Chris 
tians  in  any  age.  It  may  not  be  difficult  to  point  out  instan- 
ces of  enthusiasm,  of  excessive  mortifications,  of  supersti- 
tion,  and  of  errors,  amongst  some  of  the  ancient  solitaries ; 
but  it  would  be  hard  indeed  to  rival  their  religious  zeal,  their 
love  of  God,  their  ardent  pursuit  of  salvation,  and  their  re- 
solution in  casting  aside  every  weight  that  could  detain  them 
in  their  Christian  course. 

Antony  was  born  in  Egypt,  a.d.  251 ;  and  being  left  an 
orphan  at  an  early  age,  he  gave  his  paternal  lands  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  place  where  he  resided,  and,  having  sold 
the  rest  of  his  possessions,  he  distributed  them  among  the 
poor.  Then  associating  himself  with  those  who  were  zeal- 
ous in  religion,  he  emulated  all  their  virtues,  and  finding  a 
religious  life  delightful  in  practice,  though  difficult  at  the 
commencement,  he  continually  devised  new  methods  of  de- 
votion, self-denial,  and  temperance.  His  food  was  bread 
and  salt,  and  water  for  drink ;  and  he  frequently  remained 
fasting  for  two  or  three  entire  days.  He  sometimes  passed 
the  night  without  sleep,  engaged  in  continual  prayer,  in 
which  a  large  part  of  the  night  was  always  spent.  His  couch 
was  a  mat,  or  more  commonly  the  bare  ground.  After  fif- 
teen years  thus  spent,  he  retired  to  a  ruined  castle  in  the 
desert,  where  he  remained  in  perfect  solitude  for  twenty 
years,  and  where  his  existence  only  was  known  by  those  of 
his  friends  who  approached  and  heard  him  singing  psalms. 
At  length  he  was  prevailed  on  to  come  forth  from  his  retreat, 
and  it  was  then  seen  that  he  was  indeed  a  holy  man.  His 
soul  was  calm,  unshaken  by  sadness  or  joy ;  he  was  neither 
troubled  to  see  the  multitudes  who  came  to  visit  him,  nor 


5S  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  VIII. 

pleased  with  their  applause.  He  was  exceedingly  meek, 
most  benevolent,  agreeable,  and  inoffensive  to  those  whom 
he  met  and  conversed  with,  even  though  they  should  differ 
from  him.  The  sanctity  of  his  life  influenced  many  persons  to 
follow  his  example,  and  place  themselves  under  his  guidance, 
and  thus  the  monastic  institution  com.menced  in  Egypt.  St. 
Antony  died  in  356,  at  the  age  of  105.  Amongst  other  in- 
structions, he  advised  those  who  were  desirous  of  avoiding 
sin,  to  occupy  themselves  with  some  employment ;  "  and  let 
each  of  us,"  he  said,  "  remark  and  write  down  the  actions 
and  movements  of  his  soul,  as  if  we  ought  to  render  an 
account  of  ourselves  to  each  other.  Be  assured, .  that  the 
shame  of  being  known,  will  cause  us  to  cease  from  sin,  and 
from  evil  thoughts  :  our  own  writing  will  supply  the  place  of 
our  brethren's  eyes."  St.  Antony  is  said  to  have  cured 
many  sick  persons  by  his  prayers.  His  humility  and  rever- 
ence for  the  clergy  was  very  great.  He  was  so  humble,  that 
he  bowed  himself  before  bishops  and  presbyters ;  and,  when 
consulted  by  deacons,  he  gave  them  his  advice,  but  did  not 
offer  prayer  before  them.  He  knew  no  other  language  but 
the  Egyptian,  and  was  not  able  to  read ;  but,  by  continual 
attention,  he  had  perfectly  learned  the  Scriptures.  He  was 
never  ashamed  to  learn, — listenc-d  to  every  one, — and  if  any 
person  made  a  useful  remark,  he  acknowledged  his  obliga- 
tion. His  countenance  was  so  pure  and  calm,  so  undisturbed 
by  any  passion,  and  so  full  of  a  holy  joy,  that  they  who  had 
never  seen  him  were  able  immediately  to  distinguish  him 
amongst  many  other  brethren.  St.  Antony  supported  him- 
self by  the  labour  of  his  hands,  and  whatever  he  possessed 
beyond  his  immediate  necessities  he  gave  to  the  poor.  He 
rarely  left  his  retirement,  except  to  plead  the  cause  of  those 
who  were  oppressed ;  for  many  persons  brought  their  com- 
plaints to  him,  and  urged  his  intercession  in  their  favour 
with  the  magistrates.  St.  Athanasius  was  on  terms  of  friend- 
ship with  this  venerable  man ;  he  induced  him  to  come  to 
Alexandria,  for  the  purpose  of  declaring  publicly  his  con- 


A.D.  320-680.  EGYPTIAN  MONKS.  '  53 

demnation  of  the  Arian  heresy ;  a  circumstance  which  was 
of  very  great  service  to  the  cause  of  orthodoxy.  When 
about  to  depart  from  this  Hfe,  he  called  his  disciples,  and  said, 
"  I  enter,  as  it  is  written,  the  path  of  my  fathers  ;  for  I  see 
that  the  Lord  calleth  me."  Then  recommendvig  them  to 
abstain  from  all  communion  with  the  Arians,  and  not  to  per- 
mit his  body  to  be  carried  into  Egypt,  lest  it  should  be  em- 
balmed and  preserved  in  houses,  he  continued,  "Bury  it 
yourselves,  and  cover  it  with  earth,  in  some  place  known 
only  to  you.  At  the  day  of  resurrection  I  shall  receive  it 
incorruptible  from  the  hands  of  the  Saviour.  Farewell,  my 
children.  Antony  departs,  and  is  no  more  with  you."  Hav- 
ing thus  spoken  and  embraced  them,  he  died. 

Next  to  Antony,  tlje  chief  founders  of  monasteries  in 
Egypt  were  Ammon  and  Pachomius.  By  the  rule  of  the  lat- 
ter, his  disciples  were  permitted  to  eat,  drink,  labour,  and 
fast,  as  they  pleased ;  but  those  who  eat  more  abundantly 
were  expected  to  perform  more  laborious  works.  On  the 
first  and  last  days  of  the  week,  all  received  the  holy  eucha- 
rist.  They  prayed  twelve  times  in  the  day ;  and.  when  about 
to  take  food,  they  sang  Psalms. 

Ecclesiastical  history  has  preserved  several  interesting  an- 
ecdotes of  these  virtuous  men.  Pior  was  accustomed  to  take 
his  food  walking  about ;  and  when  asked  wherefore  he  did 
so,  he  said,  "  I  wish  not  to  regard  my  eating  as  a  serious 
occupation,  but  as  a  superfluity."  To  another  person,  who 
made  the  same  inquiry,  he  said,  "  It  was  in  order  that  he 
might  not  be  affected  by  any  bodily  enjoyment,  even  in  eat- 
ing." Pambos,  not  knowing  letters,  went  to  some  one  to  be 
taught  a  psalm,  but  having  heard  the  first  verse  of  the  thir- 
ty-ninth psalm  ("I  said,  I  will  take  heed  unto  my  ways,  that 
I  offend  not  with  my  tongue,")  he  would  not  hear  the  second 
verse,  but  departed,  saying,  that  this  one  verse  was  sufficient 
for  him,  if  he  could  learn  it  practically.  And  when  he  who 
taught  him  the  verse  afterwards  reproved  him,  because  he 
had  not  for  some  months  visited  him,  Pambos  replied,  that  he 
5* 


54  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  V^-l 

had  not  yet  learned  the  verse  practically :  and  many  yea.rs« 
after,  being  asked  by  an  acquaintance  whether  he  had  yet 
learned  that  verse,  "In  nineteen  years,"  he  said,  "I  have 
scarcely  learned  to  practice  it."  Pambos,  by  the  invitation 
of  St.  Athanasius,  came  from  the  desert  to  Alexandria,  and 
seeing  there  a  public  dancer,  who  was  a  sinner,  he  wept. 
When  asked  wherefore  he  wept,  he  said,  "  Two  things  have 
moved  me ;  first,  the  end  of  that  woman ;  the  other,  that 
I  do  not  use  such  diligence  to  please  God,  as  she  does  to 
please  wicked  men."  Another  brother,  named  Pitirus,  was 
skilled  in  the  physical  sciences,  and  continually  explained  va- 
rious scientific  questions  to  those  who  met  him,  but  with  each 
of  his  explanations  he  offered  up  prayer.  A  certain  disciple 
was  informed  of  the  death  of  his  father,  but  he  said  to  the 
messenger,  "  Cease  to  blaspheme,  for  my  father  is  immor- 
tal." One  of  the  brethren  being  possessed  of  nothing  but 
the  book  of  the  Gospels,  sold  it,  and  gave  the  money  to  feed 
the  poor,  saying,  "  I  have  sold  that  same  word,  which  saith, 
Sell  all  that  ye  have,  and  give  to  the  poor." 

„^^  Hilarion  was  the  ereat  founder  of  the 

about  A.D.  320.  .  .      •     o     •  a    o:.     vt     ^^ 

monastic  state  m  byria ;   and   bt.    Basil 

carried  this  discipline  into  Pontus.  It  also  spread  rapidly 
in  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  and  all  the  East.  It 
was  introduced  at  Milan  by  St.  Ambrose ;  in  Africa,  by  St. 
Augustine ;  in  France,  by  St.  Martin.  The  number  of  such 
religious  men  and  virgins  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  was 
exceedingly  great.  The  spirit  of  earnest  religion  in  those 
days  very  commonly  took  this  form.  The  worship  of  God 
and  self-discipline  were  not  their  only  employments.  Manual 
labour  was  strictly  enforced,  and  all  the  offices  of  Christian 
charity  were  discharged.  In  particular,  the  instruction  of 
the  ignorant,  and  the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  occupied 
their  attention.  Valentinus  was  at  the  head  of  a  great  con- 
gregation in  Coelesyria,  where  he,  with  many  of  his  breth- 
ren, lived  to  a  very  old  age ;  and  "  it  appears  to  me,"  says 
an  ancient  historian,  "that  God  prolonged  the  livis  of  these 


A.D  320-680.  SIMEON  STYLITES.  '  55 

men  for  the  benefit  of  religion ;  for  they  brought  over  the 
Syrians  in  general,  and  many  of  the  Saracens  and  Persians, 
from  heathenism  to  Christianity." 

The  principles  of  self-denial  received  in  the  monastic  fra- 
ternities, however  laudable  when  taught  and  practised  in 
moderation,  were  occasionally  pushed  to  excess  and  error. 
Eustathius,  bishop  of  Sebaste  in  Armenia,  gave  rules  to  the 
societies  in  that  country ;  but  he  is  said,  through  too  great 
strictness,  to  have  fallen  into  strange  observances  and  prac- 
tices, contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  Church.  His  disciples 
blamed  marriage ;  refused  to  pray  in  the  houses  of  married 
persons ;  despised  the  married  clergy ;  fasted  even  on  the 
Lord's  day ;  held  meetings  for  worship  in  private  houses ; 
and  condemned  those  who  eat  flesh.  For  this  reason,  the 
leighbouring  bishops  assembled  at  Gangra,  a.d.  370,*  and 
declared  them  separated  from  the  Catholic  Church,  unless 
they  should  forsake  their  errors. 

An  example  of  want  of  moderation  in  self-denial  and 
/fortifications  is  frequently  pointed  out  in  the  case  of  St.  Si-  * 
meon  Stylites,  who  lived  in  the  fiftj^  century.  Yet  it  is  im-  ^ 
possible  not  to  admit  that,  with  some  excesses  in  these  respects, 
there  was  much  to  admire  and  venerate  in  his  piety.f  He 
was,  at  first,  a  monk  in  Syria,  where  he  became  so  remark- 
able by  his  extreme  austerity,  that  his  superiors  and  com- 
panions judged  it  excessive,  and  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
society.  He  then  established  himself  as  an  anchorite,  or 
perfect  solitary,  on  a  mountain  near  Antioch,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  fasted  forty  days  and  forty  nights,  and  to  have 
used  a  degree  of  mortification  which  some  of  the  bishops 

*  [Others  date  this  council  a.d.  324  ;  others  340 ;  others  364 :  the  second 
f  these  dates  is  probably  the  true  one. — Am.  Ed.] 

f  [The   "  excesses"    of  Simeon  were   more  reprehensible   than   mere 
want  of  moderation  in  self-denial  and  mortifications."  His  multiplied  bow- 
mgs,  protracted  watchings,  constrained  postures,  and  pillar-isolation,  be- 
long to  a  low  class  of  superstitions,  and  furnish  a  melancholy  proof  of  the 
degenerating  t  mdencies  of  his  age. — Am.  Ed.] 


56  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY,  CH.  VIII 

blamed.  But  the  fame  of  his  sanctity  spieading  far  an^ 
wide,  he  was  followed  by  so  great  a  multitude  of  people  from 
Arabia,  Persia,  Armenia,  and  all  the  East  and  West,  who 
came  to  him  to  see  him  and  touch  his  garments,  that,  in  or- 
der to  avoid  their  importunity,  he  constructed  a  pillar,  on 
the  top  of  which  he  remained  for  many  years,  even  till  his 
death.  He  was  engaged  in  perpetual  prayer  and  fasting ;  he 
believed  himself  to  be  the  last  and  lowest  of  men  ;  was 
humble,  obliging,  and  kind  to  all  who  approached  him  ;  anc 
his  exhortations  were  not  unblessed  by  God,  for  he  convert- 
i'd  a  great  number  of  unbelieving  Iberians,  Armenians,  Per- 
sians, aiiJ  Arabians,  who  came  to  see  him  in  troops  of  two 
or  tlirec  hundred,  or  even  a  thousand,  renounced  their  idolsj 
received  baptism,  and  learned  Christianity  from  his  mouth. 
Tneodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrus,  speaks  of  this  as  an  eye-witness 
of  the  fact.  His  piety  was  held  in  much  reverence  by  the 
king  and  queen  of  Persia,  and  by  the  emperors  Theodosius 
and  Marcian ;  the  latter  of  whom  went  to  visit  him  in  dis- 
guise. St.  Simeon  was  a  firm  and  resolute  defender  of 
the  orthodox  faith  against  the  Eutychian  heresy,  and  died 
A.D.  461. 

I  now  turn  to  the  other  class  of  holy  men  who  adorned  the 
Church  in  these  ages.  I  have  already  spoken  of  St.  Athana- 

298  3"'^        ^^^^^   ^^^  ^^^^^  renowned   champion  of  the 
true  faith  against    Arianism.     He  was  sup- 
ported by  many  holy  confessors,  especially  by  Hilary,  bishop 
„-^       of  Poictiers,  in  France,  and  Eusebius,  of  Vercel- 
^rr       Joe  in   Italy,  who  both  suffered  exile  and  bonds 
for  their  faith ;  as  did  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari, 
who,  however,  afterwards  showed  an  unreasonable  degree 
of  severity  in  refusing  pardon  to  those  who  had  fallen  in  the 
time  of  the  Arian  persecution ;  and  even  went  so  far  as  to 
separate  from  the  communion  of  the  Church,  which  general- 
A  D    270  340        ^^  adopted   a  milder  course.     The  learned 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  though  at  first 
connected  with  the  Arian  party,  condemned  their  errors,  and 


A.D.  320-680.  MARTIN.  67 

collected  the  history  of  the  Church.      St.  g^^  „og 

Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  Meletius 
of  Antioch,  though  ordaincfd  by  the   Arians,  confessed  and 
suffered  for  the  true  faith. 

St.  Martin,  bishop  of  Tours,  was  at  first  „..  ^  «q„ 

a  sokiier,  and  was  so  remarkable  for  his 
charity,  that  once,  in  the  midst  of  winter,  when  the  severi- 
ty of  the  cold  was  so  extreme  that  many  persons  died  of  it, 
having  met  a  poor  man  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  and  having 
nothing  else  to  bestow,  he  divided  his  cloak  with  his  sword, 
and  gave  half  of  it  to  the  beggar.  But  the  next  night  he 
saw  in  a  dream  his  Saviour  arrayed  in  the  half  of  his  garment, 
and  surrounded  by  the  angels ;  and  he  was  so  deeply  im- 
pressed by  his  dream,  that  he  gave  ^ap  the  military  life  and 
was  baptised.  When  he  was  returning  to  his  native  land, 
he  was  taken  prisoner  by  robbers  in  the  Alps  ;  but  in  the 
midst  of  the  greatest  dangers,  he  evinced  such  magnanimity, 
and  so  piously  exhorted  the  lawless  men  by  whom  he  was  sur- 
rounded, that  one  of  them  believed,  and  besought  Martin  to 
pray  for  him,  and  afterwards  became  a  religious  man.  In 
his  own  country,  Illyria,  he  so  strongly  opposed  the  Arians, 
that  he  was  beaten  with  rods,  and  compelled  to  escape.  He 
then  fled  to  the  island  of  Gfellinaria,  on  the  coast  of  Italy, 
with  a  religious  presbyter,  where  they  lived  for  some  time  on 
herbs.     He  was  a   friend   of  St.   Hilary  of  Poictiers;  and 

passing  into  France,  founded  a  monastery         ,     ^         „^„ 
^  ^  ,  ^  ,  /         about  A.D.  360. 

near  Poictiers,  but   was    afterwards  made 

bishop    of  Tours    by  the  unanimous  choice   of  the   people, 

though  he  was  most  reluctant  to  undertake  the  office.     After 

his  consecration,  he  still  retained  the  same  habits  of  life,  the 

same  humility  of  heart,  and  the  same  poverty  of  attire,  which 

had  always  distinguished  him  ;  but  to  this  was  united  all  the 

authority  and  gravity  of  a  bishop.     He  for  some  time  lived 

in  a  little  cell  attached  to  the  church  ;  but  being  disturbed  by 

the  nuip.ber  of  visitors,  he  founded  a  monastery  two  miles  off, 

in  a  desert  place,  where  he  lived  like  all  the  other  monks. 


58  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  VIII. 

The  employment  of  the  younger  brethren  in  this  society  con- 
sisted in  transcribing  books ;  the  elders  were  devoted  only 
to  prayer  and  meditation.  St.  Martin  obtained  so  powerful 
an  ascendency  over  the  minds  of  the  people,  that  he  was  en- 
abled to  overthrow  the  heathen  temples,  and  build  churches 
in  their  place.  When  he  was  invited  by  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
mus  to  dine  at  his  table,  he  refused,  saying  that  he  could  not 
partake  of  the  table  of  a  man  who  had  deprived  one  emperor 
of  his  throne,  and  another  of  his  life.  When  the  emperor 
excused  himself,  alleging  that  he  had  been  compelled  to  re- 
ceive the  crown,  and  that  he  had  not  done  so  voluntarily, 
Martin  accepted  his  invitation  ;  but,  to  the  surprise  of  every 
one,  he  gave  the  cup  to  his  presbyter  to  drink  before  the  em- 
peror and  his  relatives.  The  empress,  sitting  at  his  feet, 
listened  day  and  night  to  his  discourses ;  and  having  obtained 
the  emperor's  permission  to  entertain  him  at  her  own  house, 
she  attended  him  at  table,  performed  the  humblest  offices,  and 
preserved  the  very  crumbs  which  he  had  left  as  precious 
relics.  St.  Martin  is  said  to  have  been  enabled  to  work  mira- 
cles for  the  conversion  of  the  heathen.* 

St.  Basil  of  Caesarea,  and  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzum, 
were  united  by  intimate  friendship  in  their  youth,  whilst  they 
studied  at  Athens  under  the  most  celebrated  teachers  of  the 
age  ;  and  when  their  studies  were  completed,  Basil  returned 
to  Csesarea,  and  from  thence  went  to  the  monasteries  of 
Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria,  in  order  to  see  the  reli- 
gious life  in  its  perfection,  and  to  derive  spiritual  instruction 
from  the  pious  men  who  dwelt  there.  Returning  to  Pontus, 
he  retired  to  the  desert  to  practice  the  religious  life.  Here 
he  was  soon  joined  by  his  friend  Gregory  Nazianzen ;  and 
they  continued  there  for  a  long  time,  engaged  in  prayer,  and 
the  study  of  the  holy  Scripture,  which  they  read  with  the 
assistance    of    ancient    commentators,    especially    Origen. 

*  [Much  that  is  told  of  him  is  of  a  very  questionable  character.  Yet 
through  all  the  difficulties  that  surround  his  history  he  appears  plainly  to 
be  a  great  and  holy  man. — Am.  Ed.] 


4..D.  320-680.  BASIL  AND  GREGORY.  59 

They  also  laboured  with  their  hands,  carrying  wood,  cutting 
stones,  planting  and  watering  trees,  and  cultivating  their 
garden.  Nevertheless,  they  lived  in  the  utmost  poverty,  and 
on  the  hardest  fare.  A  great  number  of  other  persons  imi- 
tated their  example,  amongst  whom  was  Gregory,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Nyssa,  brother  of  Basil ;  and  Basil  gave  rules  for 
the  monastic  life,  which  are  still  followed  by  the  monks  of 
the  order  of  St.  Basil,  in  the  eastern  Church.  About  a.d. 
362,  Basil  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  were  ordained  priests, 
but  still  continued  to  reside  in  the  desert  till  370,  when  Basil 
came  forth  to  assist  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  against  the 
heretics  ;  and  being  skilled  in  the  writings  of  Origen,  he  and 
Gregory  confuted  the  Arians,  v/ho  adduced  those  writings  in 
proof  of  their  errors :  and  though  they,  with  their  leader 
Eunomius,  had  been  famed  for  learning,  they  appeared  per- 
fectly ignorant  when  they  encountered  these  champions  of  the 
truth.  Basil  was  soon  after  elected  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in 
Cappadocia  ;  and  fearing  lest  heresy  should  prevail  in  Pontus, 
he  passed  through  the  Churches,  preaching  the  true  faith, 
and  confirming  the  wavering.  When  this  came  to  the  ears 
of  the  Arian  Emperor  Valens,  he  caused  Basil  to  be  brought  be- 
fore the  tribunal  of  the  Prefect  Modestus  ;  and  when  the  latter 
demanded  why  He  did  not  embrace  the  creed  of  the  emperor, 
Basil  boldly  reproved  the  Arian  heresy ;  and  when  the  pre- 
fect threatened  death,  he  replied,  "  Death  will  be  a  favour 
to  me,  since  it  will  send  me  unto  God,  for  whom  I  live,  and 
whom  I  have  long  sought."  The  emperor  was  at  last  over- 
come  by  his  firmness,  and  Basil  was  released.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  was,  against  his  will,  ordained  bishop  of  Sasima 
by  Basil.  He  continued,  however,  to  govern  the  Church  of 
Nazianzum  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  who  was  the 
bishop  of  that  see  ;  and,  like  Basil,  he  went  through  the 
cities  and  strengthened  those  who  were  feeble  in  the  faith. 
Afterwards  he  resided  at  Constantinople,  where  the  Arians 
were  in  great  force,  and  possessed  the  churches ;  and  by  his 
eloquence  he  raised  the  Church  there  to  great  prosperity.  He 


A.D.  374. 


60  '  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  VIU. 

was  at  length  installed  bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  second 
oecumenical  synod ;  but  soon  after  resigned  his  see,  in  con- 
sequence  of  some  divisions  which  had  arisen,  and  retired  to 
Cappadocia,  where  he  died,  at  the  age  of  more 
than  ninety  years.  St.  Basil  had  died  in  379, 
reverenced  by  all  the  Christian  world. 

AmonfTst  the  most  illustrious  defenders  of  the  true  faith 
at  this  time  was  Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Milan.  He  had 
been  made  governor  of  that  city  by  the  Emperor  Valen- 
tinian  ;  when,  the  see  becoming  vacant  by  the 
death  of  an  Arian  bishop,  and  the  people  being 
violently  disturbed  as  to  the  choice  of  a  successor,  Ambrose 
exhorted  them  to  peace  and  concord,  when  all  demanded  at 
once  that  he  should  be  their  bishop.  He  in  vain  resisted,  and 
attempted  to  fly.  The  emperor's  commands  arrived,  and  he 
was  consecrated  bishop.  He  sold  all  his  goods  and  gave 
them  to  the  poor,  and  applied  with  the  utmost  diligence  to 
the  study  of  holy  Scripture.  In  order  to  redeem  captives 
from  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  he  even  sold  the  plate  of  the 
church,  merely  reserving  what  was  absolutely  necessary. 
His  firmness  was  soon  evinced  by  his  resistance  to  the  will 
of  the  Empress  Justina,  mother  of  Valentinian,  who  pre 
vailed  on  the  emperor  to  demand  one  of  the  churches  ii. 
Milan  for  the  Arians.  St.  Ambrose  firmly  and  successfully 
opposed  this  attempt,  though  at  the  peril  of  his  life.  The 
Emperor  Theodosius  having  put  to  death  a  great  multitude 
of  people  at  Thessalonica,  in  consequence  of  a  tumult  hav- 
ing arisen,  in  which  one  of  his  ofiicers  was  killed,  Am- 
brose would  not  permit  his  entrance  to  the  church  until  he 
had  performed  public  penance,  and  made  a  law  commanding 
all  executions  to  be  suspended  for  thirty  days.  St.  Ambrose 
composed  many  eloquent  and  pious  books,  and  died  a.d.  397. 
St.  John,  called  Chrysostom  (the  golden-mouthed)  for 
his  eloquence,  was  originally  at  the  bar ;  but  forsaking  the 
path  of  worldly  honour,  he  retired  from  the  world  to  devote 
himself  to  prayer   and  the    study  of  Scripture;  and  after- 


A.D.  320-680.  CHRYSOSTOM.  61 

wards,    being  appointed   presbyter  of  Antioch,   he  became 
the  most  celebrated  preacher  of  his  age,  so  that  oq« 

when  the  see  of  Constantinople  was  vacant,  the 
Emperor  Honorius  sent  for  him,  and  caused  him  to  be  or 
dained  bishop  by  a  great  synod  of  bishops.  The  sanctity 
and  severity  of  doctrine  and  practice  which  had  made  him  so 
remarkable  at  Antioch,  led  him  to  exercise  a  vigilant  and  un- 
popular strictness  of  discipline  in  the  imperial  city :  and  his 
zeal  displayed  itself  further  in  visiting  the  neighbouring 
provinces  and  removing  unworthy  bishops.  -  The  people  of 
Constantinople  heard  his  sermons  eagerly  and  insatiably, 
and  the  crowds  were  so  great  that  their  lives  were  endangered 
by  the  multitude,  all  endeavouring  to  press  nearer  to  him, 
that  they  might  hear  more  accurately,  while  he  himself,  sit- 
ting in  the  midst  of  the  church,  taught  them  from  the  desk  of 
the  reader.  But  the  severity  of  his  discipline,  and  his  con- 
demnation of  vice,  raised  against  him  many  enemies ;  and 
having  taken  the  part  of  some  monks  who  had  been  oppressed 
by  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  that  prelate,  availing 
himself  of  the  assistance  of  the  empress,  whom  Chrysostom 
had  offended  by  a  sermon,  in  which  he  spoke  of  women  with 
but  little  respect,  came  to  Constantinople  and  held  a  synod, 
in  which  Chrysostom  was  deposed  by  his  enemies.  But  when 
the  people  heard  it,  they  assembled  in  the  church,  required  a 
larger  synod  to  be  held  ;  resisted  the  imperial  officers  who 
were  sent  to  take  their  bishop  into  exile ;  and  when,  at 
length,  he  was  removed,  they  broke  into  insurrection,  and 
surrounded  the  palace  with  cries  and  lamentations,  demand- 
ing the  recall  of  Chrysostom,  which  the  emperor  was  obliged 
to  grant.  Restored  to  his  see  by  a  synod  of  sixty  bishops, 
Chrysostom  again,  ere  long,  fell  under  the  imperial  dis- 
pleasure in  consequence  of  his  objections  to  the  erection  of 
a  statue  of  the  Empress  Eudoxia.  He  was  then  driven  forth 
into  exile  in  Armenia,  where  he  died;  and   the  .^^ 

eastern   and  western  Churches  were  lor   some 
time  divided  on  his  account,  as  the  former  maintained  the 

6 


62  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  TH.  VIII. 

lawfulness  of  his  expulsion,  while  the  latter  regarded  him  as 
a  saint. 

St.  Jerome  and  St.  Augustine,  the  most  learned  of  all 
the  fathers,  now  adorned  the  Church.  The  former  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  the  monastic  state,  in  Palestine, 
and  died  in  420.  St.  Augustine  was  born  in  Africa,  and  in 
his  early  life  fell  into  vices,  and  adopted  the  Manichcean 
heresy ;  but  being  at  Milan,  he  became  an  attendant  on  the 
ministry  of  Ambrose,  while  his  pious  mother  Monica  prayed 
continually  for  his  conversion.  One  day,  a  Christian,  named 
Pontitian,  coming  to  visit  him,  saw  on  his  table  the  epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  and  learned,  to  his  great  joy,  that  Augustine 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  Scripture.  The 
conversation  gradually  turned  on  the  life  of  St.  Antony  and 
the  Egyptian  and  eastern  monks,  of  whom  Augustine  had 
never  heard  before.  When  Pontitian  had  described  all  their 
piety,  and  self-denial,  and  zeal,  and  also  mentioned  the  ef- 
fect which  the  recital  had  produced  on  two  officers  of  the 
emperor  at  Treves,  who,  on  hearing  it  had  forsaken  the 
world,  and  embraced  a  religious  life,  St.  Augustine  was 
deeply  moved  by  the  comparison  of  his  own  life  and 
conduct  with  what  he  had  heard,  and  went  forth  into  the 
garden  in  the  greatest  agitation  and  compunction,  where, 
having  wept  a  long  time,  and  prayed  to  God,  he  heard  from 
a  neighbouring  house  the  voice  of  a  child  often  repeating 
these  words, — "  Take — read  ;"  and,  regarding  it  as  a  sort  of 
heavenly  admonition,  he  returned  to  the  house,  and  took  up 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  when  the  first  verse  he  read  was, 
"  Let  us  walk  honestly,  as  in  the  day ;  not  in  rioting  and 
drunkenness,  not  in  chambering  and  wantonness,  not  in 
strife  and  envying.  But  put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  make  not  provision  for  the  flesh,  to  fulfil  the  lusts  there- 
of." His  mind  was  now  completely  changed :  he  received 
oQ«  baptism  from  St.  Ambrose,  and  returned  to  Afri- 
ca,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  retirement, 
prayer,   meditation,  and  the  composition  of  books  against 


A.D.  320-680.  ROMAN  CHtJRCH.  63 

the  Manichsean  heresy.  He  sold  all  his  possessions  and 
gave  them  to  the  poor,  and  was  made  presbyter,  and  after- 
wards bishop  of  Hippo,  where  he  lived  in  the  monastic  state. 
His  life  was  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  truth  against 
heathens,  heretics,  and  schismatics  ;  and  his  various  writings 
made  him  celebrated  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  When  seized 
with  fever,  and  lying  on  his  death-bed,  this  eminent  saint 
caused  the  seven  penitential  psalms  to  be  recited ;  and  hav- 
ing desired  them  to  be  fixed  up  before  him,  he  read  them 
continually  with  many  tears.  He  commanded  that  he  should 
never  be  disturbed,  and  spent  his  whole  remaining  time  in 
prayer,  until  at  length  he  calmly  and  peacefully  expired  in 
the  presence  of  all  his  friends,  a.d.  430. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and 
St.  Leo  the  Great  bishop  of  Rome,  as  the  great  opponents 
of  the  Nestorian  and  Eutychian  heresies  in  the  fifth  century  : 
both  of  these  eminent  prelates  left  many  writings,  which  are 
still  extant.  St.  Benedict,  a  man  of  eminent  piety  and 
zeal,  in  529  founded  the  monastery  of  Mount  Casino,  in 
Italy;  and  his  rule  was  adopted,  for  many  centuries,  by  all 
the  monasteries  in  the  western  Church ;  but  they  very  soon 
relaxed  the  strictness  of  its  observance,  and  the  conduct 
of  the  monks  too  frequently  reflected  disgrace  on  their  pro- 
fession. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


UNITY  AND  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

A.D.  320-680. 

Amongst  the  Christian  Churches  throughout  the  world,  the 
Church  of  the  imperial  city  of  Rome  had  obtained  an  early 
distinction.  Seated  in  the  capital  of  the  world,  abounding 
in  wealth  and  in   numbers,  remarkable  for   a  munificence 


M  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  IX 

which  was  felt  by  the  distressed  and  afflicted  in  all  parts,  en 
dowed  with  a  firmness  of  faith  which  opposed  a  steady  and 
formidable  resistance  to  every  heresy,  and  founded  by  the 
holy  apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  the  Roman  Church  stood  con- 
spicuous amongst  Christian  communities ;  and,  even  in  the 
third  century,  the  neighbouring  Churches  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
the  adjoining  islands,  placed  themselves  under  its  jurisdic- 
tion.  The  first  oecumenical  synod  of  Nice  approved  of  this 
jui'isdiction,  which  constituted  the  patriarchate  of  Rome; 
but  the  bishop  of  Rome  had  no  ordinary  jurisdiction  beyond 
his  patriarchate.  The  appeals  of  St.  Athanasius  and  the 
other  orthodox  bishops,  when  persecuted  by  the  Arians,  to 
Julius  of  Rome,  and  the  support  which  they  received  from 
that  bishop,  led  the  great  synod  of  Sardica  to 
give  tlie  Roman  bishop  the  power  of  ordering 
the  causes  of  bishops  to  be  re-heard  in  cases  where  it  appear- 
ed to  him  they  were  unjustly  condemned.  This,  decree  was 
indeed  never  received  in  the  eastern  or  the  African  Church ; 
and  only,  after  the  lapse  of  some  centuries,  in  the  western 
Church ;  but  it  laid  a  foundation,  on  which  the  Roman  see 
began  to  build  its  pretensions.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century,  the  spirit  of  encroachment  began  to  work  in 
Uiat  Church  ;  its  bishops  now  extended  their  jurisdiction  be- 
yond the  ancient  limits  approved  by  the  synod  of  Nice,  and 
invested  the  bishop  of  Thessalonica  with  the  title  of  "  Vicar 
of  the  Apostolical  See"  in  Illyricum,  with  the  view  of  bring- 
ing,  by  this  means,  that  province  and  Greece  under  their 
ecclesiastical  sway.  In  the  following  century,  the  bishops  of 
Aries  and  of  Seville  were  declared  vicars  for  Gaul  and 
Spain :  in  the  sixth,  Augustine  was  made  vicar  for  Britain. 
The  principal  bishops  in  each  country  were  thus  engaged 
in  the  interests  of  Rome,  and  were  encouraged  gradually 
to  make  inroads  on  the  liberties  of  the  Churches.  These 
vicars  were  appointed  chiefly  under  the  pretence  that  the 
Roman  bishop  was  bound  by  his  station  to  see  that  the  ancient 
discipline  of  the  Church  and   the  law  of  Christ   were  duly 


A.D.  320-680.  ROMAN  CHURCH.  65 

observed ;  and  this  notion  was  confirmed,  if  not  created,  by 
the  habit  of  many  bishops  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  of  con 
suiting  tke  Roman  Church  on  difficult  cases  of  discipline, 
and  frequently  adopting  its  advice.  It  is  true  that  they  mere- 
ly  sought  the  advice  of  a  Church  of  apostolical  antiquity  and 
of  strict  discipline  ;  but  that  advice  was  often  given  in  a  tone 
of  authority ;  and  the  decretal  epistles  of  the  popes,  which 
we  possess  from  the  time  of  Siricius  (the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century,)  formed  gradually  a  body  of  precedents, 
which  led  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  the  western  bishops  to 
ascribe  to  the  former  a  sort  of  legislative  power  in  the 
Church,  which  was  in  the  event  productive  of  the  most  inju- 
rious  consequences.  But,  during  the  period  now  before  us, 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  see,  however  encroaching,  was 
almost  always  virtuously  exercised ;  and  if  it  excited  some- 
v/hat  of  a  spirit  of  ambition  .and  encroachment  on  the  part 
of  other  great  sees,  the  evil  was,  in  some  degree,  counter- 
balanced by  the  effective  resistance  which  it  was  enabled  to 
give  to  heresy,  and  to  the  ecclesiastical  disorders  and  cor- 
ruptions  introduced  by  the  invasions  of  the  barbarous  nations. 
Its  efforts  were  chiefly  limited  to  procure  the  observation  of 
the  canons  or  laws  of  discipline,  made  by  the  oecumenical 
synods  ;  to  encourage  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  heathen 
nations ;  and  to  provide  for  the  necessities  and  peculiar  cir 
cumstances  of  newly  founded  Churches. 

The  Church,  however,  felt  that  an  authority  which  arose, 
in  any  degree,  from  a  spirit  of  encroachment,  could  not  fail 
to  be  ultimately  injurious ;  and  accordingly  the  third  oecu- 
menical synod,  expressly  forbad  any  patriarch  to  .^1 
assume  jurisdiction  over  Churches  which  had  not  ^ 
from  the  beginning  been  subject  to  his  see ;  lest,  as  they  said, 
under  the  guise  of  religion,  the  swelling  of  worldly  pride 
should  find  an  entrance,  the  canons  of  the  fathers  be  violated, 
and  we  imperceptibly  lose  that  liberty  which  Christ  purchased 
for  us  by  his  blood.  According  to  this  canon,  is  was  un- 
.awful  for  the  Roman  see  to  assume  any  ordinary  jurisdiction 

6* 


66  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  IX. 

in  Britain ;  though,  when  religion  had  been  oppressed  by  the 
heathen  Saxons  in  that  country,  Pope  Gregory  acted  most 
laudably  in  sending  missionaries  there  to  convert  the  barbari- 
ans. But  this  was  only  an  act  of  charity,  such  as  any  Chris- 
tian bishop  might  have  done ;  and  could  not  give  his  succes- 
sors any  right  of  jurisdiction  in  England,  in  opposition  te 
the  law  of  the  oecumenical  synod.  Happy,  indeed,  had  it 
been  for  religion,  if  the  Roman  Church  had  adhered  to  the 
spirit  of  this  decree,  and  refrained  from  adding  to  its  original 
and  lawful  jurisdiction. 

The  rival  see  of  Constantinople  now  rose  suddenly  to  dig- 
nity and  power.     When  Constantine  the  Great  removed  the 

«„p.       seat  of  empire  from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  the 

bishop   of   that  city   soon  obtained  jurisdiction 

over  the  surrounding  bishops  of  Thrace.     The  second  cecu- 

„Q-  menical  synod  declared  him  second  in  dignity 
'  -_ ^ *  only  to  the  bishop  of  Rome ;  and  the  fourth 
made  them  equal  in  dignity  and  authority,  while 
it  sanctioned  the  jurisdiction  which  St.  Chrysostom  and 
his  successors  had  acquired  over  Asia  Minor.  The  other 
patriarchs  were  those  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusa- 
lem ;  but  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  given 
the  title  of  "cBCumenical,  or  universal  patriarch"  by  the 
Roman  emperors  in  the  sixth  century,  became,  and  has  al- 
ways since  continued,  the  head  of  the  eastern  Church. 

The  communion  of  Churches  received  several  interrup- 

„.,        tions  durinfT  this  period.     After  the  council  of 

A.D.  341.        „       ,.  °  * 

bardica,  the  eastern  and  western  bishops  re- 
mained for  some  years  estranged  from  mutual  communion, 
in  coifeequence  of  their  contentions  about  St.  Athanasius.  A 
similar  division  was  caused  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same 
362       century  by  the  ordination  of  two  patriarchs  of 

Antioch  by  different  parties,  one  of  whom  was 
recognised  by  the  eastern,  and  the  other  by  the  western 
Church.  This  division  was  healed  by  the  pious  care  of  St. 
Chrysostom.      The  deposition  of  that   great  man,  and  the 


A.D.  320-680.  ROMAN  CHURCH.  67 

ordination  of  another  in  his  place  to  the  see  of  .^. 

Constantinople,  led  to   a  division   between   the 
East  and  West,  which  continued  for  many  years,  until  jus- 
tice was  done  by  the  Churches  of  the  East  to  the   memory 
of  that  illustrious  bishop.  Another  division  arose,  .q^ 

when  Acacius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  having 
caused  the  re-union  of  the  Monophysites  to  the  Church,  on 
principles  which  left  the  authority  of  the  fourth  oecumenical 
synod  in  doubt,  and  thus  compromised  the  truth,  was  depos- 
ed and  excommunicated  by  Felix,  bishop  of  Rome.  The 
great  body  of  the  eastern  bishops,  though  orthodox  them- 
selves, did  not  admit  the  propriety  of  this  act ;  and  the  re- 
sult was,  that  the  eastern  and  western  Churches  were  again 
estranged  from  mutual  communion  for  twenty-five  years.  In 
the  following  century  the  Churches  of  Africa,  Tuscany, 
Illyricum,  and  some  others,  refused  for  a  time  to  admit  the 
fifth  oecumenical  synod,  and  were  out  of  communion  with 
the  rest  of  the  Church ;  but  on  full  inquiry,  they  adopted  the 
general  decision:  The  ancient  British  and  Irish  Churches, 
in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  were  treated  as  schisma- 
tics  by  the  Roman  Church,  in  consequence  of  their  adherence 
to  their  ancient  customs,*  and  for  not  submitting  to  the 
authority  of  the  papal  see  ;  but  they  were  acknowledged  as 
Christians  by  many  Churches.  . 

These  divisions,  however  much  they  diminished  the  glory 
of  the  Church,  did  not  altogether  destroy  the  principle  of 
Christian  charity.  It  was  still  universally  held  that  the 
Church  formed  but  one  spiritual  fraternity ;  that  all  Chris- 
tians were  members  of  the  same  body ;  and  that  it  was  their 
duty  to  hold  communion  w^th  each  other.  When  divisions 
arose,  excommunication  consisted  generally  in  a  simple  with- 
drawal of  communion,  without  any  sentence  of  anathema, 
or  of  total  separation  from  Christianity.  These  withdrawals 
of  communion  were  intended  to  procure  the  reformation  of 

*  [For  which  they  truly  pleaded  apostolical  warrant,  in  the  practice  of 
St.  John,  derived  to  them  through  the  churches  of  Gaul.    Am.  Ed.]   . 


C8  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  X. 

the  offending  party ;  and  the  divided  Churches  always  retained 
the  same  principle  of  veneration  for  Scripture,  as  interpreted 
by  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  Church  in  all  past  ages,  and 
sincerely  endeavoured  to  be  re-united  to  their  brethren  in 

Christ. 


CHAPTER  X. 


ON  THE  RISE  OF  ABUSES  AND  CORRUPTIONS. 

A.D.  320-680. 

The  strong  faith  of  the  early  Christians  in  some  instances 
degenerated  into  credulity.  Accustomed  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  miracles  recorded  in  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  still 
continuing  to  hear  of  occasional  miracles  wrought  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen,  they  received  with  too  ready  a 
credence  many  tales  of  wonders  and  signs  which  superstitior 
or  imposture  spread  abroad.  In  western  Europe,  the  igno- 
rance of  a  long  night  of  political  barbarism  and  warfare  ren- 
dered the  multitude  prone  to  the  reception  of  such  errors. 
Men  of  eminent  sanctity  were  supposed  to  have  the  power 
of  working  miracles  by  their  prayers ;  and  the  veneration 
which  attached  to  their  persons  when  living  followed  them 
beyond  the  grave. 

The  Church  has  not  always  been  gifted  with  a  spirit  of 
wisdom  and  foreknowledge  to  discern  the  future  abuses  of 
opinions  and  practices,  which  it  originally  permitted  without 
reproof  Could  the  pious  fathers  of  the  fourth  century,  who 
in  their  orations  apostrophised  the  departed  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs, and  called  for  their  prayers  to  God,  have  foreseen  the 
abuses  to  which  this  practice  was  to  lead  ;  could  they  have 
known  that  these  expressions  of  an  ardent,  though  somewhat 
unregulated  feeling,  were  to  induce  others,  in  process  of 
time,  to  adopt  such  invocations  as  a  stated  portion  of  theii 
daily  worship — to  lead  in  later  ages  to  actual  prayers  ad- 


A.D  320-680.  ABUSES.  $9 

dressed  to  the  saints  themselves,  and  to  cause  such  prayers 
and  invocations  almost  to  supplant  the  worship  of  Go-d  among 
the  ignorant  or  superstitious, — they  would  have  carefully 
avoided  the  introduction  of  a  practice  so  dangerous  to  true 
religion.  Yet  during  the  period  before  us,  the  invocation 
of  saints,  however  superfluous  and  unwise,  neither  usurped 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  worship  of  Christians,  nor  was  in 
itself  so  censurable,  as  it  became  in  after-ages.  It  consisted 
simply  in  addresses  to  the  saints  to  pray  to  God  for  us  ;  nor 
is  there  any  evidence  that  it  was  a  universal  practice.  The 
invocation  of  angels  was  directly  prohibited  by  the  council 
of  Laodicea,  in  the  fourth  century ;  yet  in  the  seventh  it  was 
introduced  into  some  litanies  of  the  western  Church.  The 
invocation  of  saints  also  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  public 
worship  in  these  formularies. 

The  same  affection,  the  same  veneration,  with  which  the 
spirits  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  were  regarded  by  the  early 
Christians,  attended  their  earthly  remains;  and  the  same 
credulity  of  individuals  led  to  the  circulation  of  an  opinion 
that  even  their  inanimate  relics  could  procure  blessings  for 
those  who  touched  them  with  faith,  since  the  dead  bones  of 
the  prophet  Elisha,  the  hem  of  our  Lord's  garment,  and  the 
handkerchiefs  from  St.  Paul's  body,  had  wrought  miracles. 
Hence  the  relics  of  martyrs  and  saints  were,  in  the  fourth 
and  following  centuries,  regarded  with  very  great  veneration 
in  many  parts  of  the  Church ;  and  they  gradually  even  be- 
came temptations  to  the  ignorant  and  enthusiastic,  who  too 
willingly  received  the  tales  of  marvels  which  they  were  said 
to  have  worked,  and  sometimes  seemed  inclined  to  forget 
the  Author  and  Giver  of  all  good  things,  in  their  admiration 
of  the  gifts  which  they  attributed  to  his  creatures.  The  de- 
sire of  possessing  such  relics  became  so  great  in  the  fifth 
and  following  centuries,  that  it  led  dishonest  men  to  produce 
a  number  of  spurious  relics ;  so  that,  after  the  lapse  of  some 
ages,  it  became  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  the  true  from 
the  false.     The  custom  of  placing  relics  in  churches,   which 


70  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  X. 

began  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  and  became  universal 
in  the  seventh,  also  contributed  to  swell  the  number  of  false 
relics.  No  one  will  deny  that  the  remains  of  martyrs  and 
holy  men  ought  to  be  treated  with  honour  and  respect ;  but 
when  this  assumes  the  character  of  superstitious  or  idolatrous 
worship,  the  Church  is  bound  to  remove  the  cause  of  such 
abuses.  It  was  this  that  led  the  Church  of  England,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  to  remove  the  alleged  relics  of  saints, — -a 
measure  which  was  justified  by  a  strong  necessity. 

It  was  a  pious  and  natural  feeling  of  love,  which  led  many 
Christians,  in  the  fourth  and  following  centuries,  to  make 
pilgrimages  to  visit  the  scenes  of  our  Saviour's  life  and  death, 
and  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs  and  saints  whose  virtues  had 
adorned  Christianity.  But  this  custom  led  to  serious  abuses  : 
it  led  clergy  as  well  as  laity  to  forsake  the  sphere  of  their 
appointed  duties,  and  to  consume  their  time  in  wandering 
over  the  earth.  After  the  period  of  which  I  am  now  speak- 
ing, the  evil  increased  much ;  and  St.  Boniface,  about  750, 
complained  of  the  disgrace  which  religion  suffered  from  the 
sinful  lives  of  many  persons  who  had  undertaken  such  jour. 
neys.  This  practice  even  became  one  means  by  which  the 
ancient  penitential  discipline  was  subverted  ;  for  it  was  cus- 
tomary with  some  bishops,  after  the  period  now  before  us,  to 
commute  the  lengthened  canonical  penances  for  pilgrimages 
to  Jerusalem  or  to  some  other  holy  place. 

The  use  of  pictures  or  sculptures  representing  our  Sa- 
viour, the  chief  events  of  sacred  history,  or  the  saints,  was 
not  unfrequent  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  These  pic- 
tures were  only  intended  for  ornament,  for  the  information 
of  the  ignorant,  or  to  excite  pious  recollections :  all  worship 
.^rt       to  them  was  forbidden.   St.  Epiphanius,  tore  the 

A.D.  400.  .,     ,  ,         ,  ,  .    ,      ,         . 

vail  of  a  church  on  which  the  picture  ot  a  saint 
was  embroidered.  Serenus,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  about 
600,  destroyed  images  which  the  people  worshipped ;  and 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  while  he  questioned  the  propriety 


A.D.  320-680.  ABUSES.  71 

of  the  act,  yet  equally  disapproved  of  the  abuse  it  was  de 
signed  to  prevent. 

The  evils  of  which  I  have  been  speaking  were  all  engraft- 
ed on  opinions  or  practices  in  themselves  blameless  or  excusa- 
ble ;  and  it  was  frequently  difficult  to  distinguish  precisely 
between  right  and  wrong ;  to  trace  the  boundary  between  pie- 
ty and  superstition.  But  as  the  Scriptures  were  still  under- 
stood by  many  of  the  people,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that 
such  evils  could  not  yet  have  been  of  a  very  serious  character 
or  wide  prevalence. 

Another  evil  was  slowly  growing,  at  the  close  of  the  period 
now  under  consideration.  When  Christianity  was  first  dis- 
seminated, the  earliest  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  that  of 
tongues,  in  order  that  every  nation  might  hear  in  its  own 
language  the  wonderful  v/orks  of  God,  and  that  every  tongue 
might  confess  that  Jesus  is  the  Lord.  Accordingly,  at  first, 
every  nation  employed  its  own  language  in  the  worship  of 
God ;  for,  as  St.  Paul  said  to  those  who  celebrated  the  eu- 
charist  in  a  language  unknown  to  their  hearers,  "  When 
thou  shalt  bless  with  the  spirit,  how  shall  he  that  occupieth 
the  room  of  the  unlearned  say  Amen,  at  thy  giving  of 
thanks,  seeing  he  understandeth  not  what  thou  sayest  ?"* 
Guided  by  these  apostolical  instructions,  the  Greeks  used 
their  own  language  in  divine  service.  The  Churches  of 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia  used  the  Syriac  language ;  the 
native  Egyptians  Coptic ;  the  Grecian  colonies  at  Alexan- 
dria, and  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  prayed  in  Greek.  The 
Ethiopic  was  used  in  Abyssinia,  the  Armenian  in  Arine- 
nia,  Sclavonic  in  Russia,  and  Illyric  in  Illyria.  The  Latin 
was  vernacular  in  Italy,  Africa,  Spain,  Gaul,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  the  liturgy  of  those  Churches.  Even  after  the 
Goths  and  other  barbarous  nations  had  invaded  the  West, 
the  mass  of  the  Christian  population  still  spoke  the  Latin 
language ;  and  for  several  ages  it  did  not  become  so  corrupt- 
ed by  the  admixture  of  foreign  words  as  to  be  unintelligible 
'  1  Cor.  xiv.  16. 


72  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  X. 

to  the  people.  The  same  observation  may  be  appHed  gene, 
rally  to  the  eastern  Churches,  in  which  the  language  of  the 
liturgy  long  continued  to  be  more  or  less  understood  by  the 
people.  The  period  in  which  it  ceased  to  be  so,  must  be 
placed  after  the  ages  now  under  consideration ;  but  an  un- 
wisely-applied reverence  for  the  ancient  liturgies  of  the  Church 
led,  in  the  sixth  and  following  centuries,  to  the  adoption  of 
Latir*  services  in  the  newly-founded  Churches  of  England, 
Germany,  and  the  northern  nations ;  a  measure  which  wa3 
certainly  much  less  excusable  than  the  retention  of  the  an- 
cient language  in  the  other  parts  of  the  West.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  the  validity  of  the  sacraments  was  not  vitally  affected 
by  their  being  administered  in  a  language  understood  only  by 
the  minister,  provided  that  the  recipients  were  instructed  in 
the  meaning  of  the  essential  rites  and  prayers,  and  taught  to 
unite  their  supplications  with  those  of  the  Church :  but  this 
could  only  be  an  indifferent  substitute  for  that  united  worship 
in  voice  and  heart,  v/hich  the  Church  had  universally  receiv- 
ed from  the  apostles ;  and  it  had  a  tendency  to  cause,  in  the 
less  informed  part  of  the  community,  a  blind  and  superstitious 
dependence  on  the  effects  of  the  sacraments,  to  the  neglect  of 
all  preparation  on  their  own  parts,  instead  of  an  enlightened 
and  spiritual  apprehension  of  those  sacred  mysteries  and 
graces  which  are  conveyed  by  the  sacraments  only  to  the 
penitent  and  believing  soul. 

The  discipline  of  the  Church  with  regard  to  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy  was  different  in  the  East  and  the  West.  In 
the-former,  the  clergy  were  generally  married,  though  it  was 
not  permitted  them  to  contract  marriage  after  ordination.  It 
was  only  in  692  that  a  different  rule  was  adopted  with  regard 
to  the  oriental  bishops,  who  were  then  obliged  to  observe 
celibacy :  the  remainder  of  the  clergy  have  continued  to  fol- 
low the  ancient  practice  even  to  the  present  day.  The  dis- 
cipline  of  the  western  Church  generally,  from  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, prohibited  married  clergy,  as  it  was  supposed  that  they 
could  less   perfectly  devote  themselves  to  the  office  of  tho 


A.D.  320-680.  ABUSES.  73 

ministry.  But  the  experience  of  ages  showed  that  this  dis- 
cipHne  was  very  inexpedient,  as  it  was  plainly  not  enjoined 
by  any  Divine  command  ;  and  from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth 
century  considerable  numbers  of  the  western  clergy  were 
married ;  but  the  Roman  pontiffs  after  that  enforced  celibacy 
with  extreme  severity. 

The  great  majority  of  the  early  Christians,  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  writers  of  the  first  four  centuries,  held  that 
immediately  after  this  life  the  righteous  were  admitted  to  a 
region  of  peace  and  happiness  :  but  as  they  believed  that  the 
soul  would  be  re-united  to  the  body  at  the  last  day,  before 
ascending  into  heaven,  and  therefore  that  it  was  not  yet  in  a 
state  of  such  perfect  blessedness  as  admitted  of  no  increase ; 
ajid  as  it  was  the  opinion  of  many,  that  the  saints  were  to 
rise  from  the  dead  before  the  rest  of  mankind,  and  to  share 
in  the  glory  of  the  millennium, — it  was  customary  in  the 
Church,  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  to  offer  prayers  for  the 
perfect  peace  and  joy  of  the  departed  believers,  and  for 
iheir  participation  in  the  first  resurrection.  It  was  also  the 
opinion  of  Origen,  and  of  several  other  fathers,  that  at  the 
'ast  day,  all  believers,  without  exception,  shall  pass  through 
ciome  fire,  which  shall  purge  away  all  traces  of  sin  and  im- 
perfection,  and  render  them  meet  for  the  presence  of  God. 
This  opinion,  however,  was  not  received  by  Christians  as 
an  article  of  faith.  St.  Augustine,  in  the  fifth  century,  re- 
garded it  only  as  "  not  incredible"  that  some  of  the  faithful 
may  after  this  life  be  saved  by  a  sort  of  purifying  fire.  Gre- 
gory the  Great,  first  maintained  the  doctrine  that  ^^„ 
there  is  a  purgatory  fire,  before  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, for  slight  faults  not  repented  of  in  this  life  :  this  doc- 
tiine  he  founded  chiefly  on  certain  alleged  visions  of  souls 
in  torment  for  their  sins.  Thus  began  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory, which,  however,  was  never  received  by  the  eastern 
Church,  and  was  only  gradually  adopted  in  the  West.  Even 
in  the  twelfth  century,  as  we  learn  from  Otto  of  Frisingen, 
it  was  only  held  by  -*  som? "  writers  ;  and  it  was  never  de- 

7 


74  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XI. 

Glared  an  article  of  faith  till  1438,  in  the  council  of  Florence, 
the  authority  of  which  has  always  been  doubtful  even  among 
Romanists. 


CHAPTER  XL 

PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

A.D.  680-1054. 

The  period  on  which  we  now  enter  presents  many  painful 
features  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  The  temptations  of 
heresy  had  indeed  now  been  almost  exhausted  ;  and  the  hu- 
man mind,  wearied  with  novelties  and  dissensions,  reposed 
itself  more  implicitly  on  the  authority  of  the  Church  :  but 
ignorance  and  barbarism  were  fast  overspreading  the  traces 
of  ancient  civilization,  and  religion  too  often  became  ming- 
led with  superstition.  The  perpetual  state  of  warfare  be- 
tween rival  princes,  the  feebleness  of  governments,  unable 
to  control  their  powerful  and  turbulent  subjects,  caused  a 
general  lawlessness  and  disorder,  destructive  of  those  habits 
which  are  most  congenial  to  Christianity.  Add  to  this  the 
incursions  and  ravages  of  Saracens,  Danes,  and  Normans, 
which  threw  all  the  west  of  Europe  into  confusion ;  the  in- 
surrections and  inroads  of  Saxons,  Sclavonians,  Hungari- 
ans, and  Turks,  which  equally  disturbed  the  east  and  the 
north  ;  and  we  may  then  see  the  difficulties  under  which  re- 
ligion  laboured,  and  which  were  in  many  respects  most  in- 
jurious  to  her.  But  even  in  these  ages  we  continue  to  see 
the  fulfilment  of  our  Saviour's  promises  to  his  Church.  The 
kingdom  of  Christ  was  still  expanding  itself  from  the  river 
to  the  ends  of  the  earth  ;  the  tree  sprung  from  a  grain  of 
mustard-seed  still  showed  the  vigour  of  its  constitution  by 
putting  forth  new  and  flourishing  branches  ;  and  the  fruits  of 
the  Holy  Spirit's  influence,  the  pledge  of  our  Lord's   per- 


A.D.  680-1054.    PROGRESS  or  THE  CHURCH.  75 

petual  presence  with  his  body  the  Church,  were  abundantly 
manifested  in  the  midstof  many  scandals  and  sins.  It  may  be 
said  with  truth,  I  believe,  that  the  progress  of  Christianity  in 
the  world  during  these  dark  ages  was  scarcely  less  thar 
during  the  first  three  centuries  of  its  existence. 

In  the  eighth  century,   the  Saracens  crossed  from  Africa 
into   Spain,   and  having  subdued   the  forces  of  ^^^ 

Roderic,  the  last  king  of  the  Goths,  in  a  pitched 
battle,  made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  country.  They 
even  threatened   France,   but  were  defeated  with  dreadful 
slaughter  by  Charles  Martel,  and  compelled  to  ^go 

retire  within  the  limits  of  Spain.     They  subdued 
Sardinia,  and  ravaged  Italy  and  Sicily  (of  which  g^y 

last  they  afterwards  took  possession)  so  terribly, 
that  in  many  places  the  number  of  towns  was  reduced  by 
one  half.  Christianity,  however,  subsisted  under  the  do- 
minion  of  the  Saracens  in  the  West,  as  well  as  in  the  East, 
though  much  oppression  was  experienced  by  believers,  and 
some  were  even  delivered  to  death  for  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ.  But  the  losses  of  the  Church  under  the  Saracen  do- 
minion were  counterbalanced  by  numerous  conversions  in 
the  north  of  Europe.  Christianity  was  still  spreading 
amongst  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  it  was  carried  far  and  wide 
amongst  the  Thuringians,  Frieslanders,  and  Hessians,  in  Ger- 
many,  by  St.  Boniface,  or  Winfrid,  a  monk  „^  _  „_ 

of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  a  native  of  '  * 
England.  Rupert  and  Corbinian,  two  French  bishops,  were 
invited  by  Theodo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  early  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, to  preach  the  Gospel  in  his  dominions ;  and  the  former 
baptised  that  prince,  with  a  large  number  of  his  people. 
Christianity  was  then  established  and  bishoprics  were  found- 
ed in  Bavaria.  Firmin  preached  the  Gospel  with  great 
zeal  in  Alsatia,  Bavaria,  and  Switzerland  ;  and  Lebuin,  a 
native  of  England,  laboured  amongst  the  Saxons.  Carinthia  re- 
ceived Christianity  from  Bavaria,  the  duke  of  „„^  ^^rx 

^       .       ,   .      ,  .  1  -rr.        .1.  1-1  ^•^*     '00-780. 

Carmthia  havmg  requested  Vir^ihus,  bishop 


76  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XI. 

of  Saltzburg,  to  send  clergy  to  instruct  his  people.  St.  Vir- 
gilius,  who  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  and  remarkable  for  his 
learning  and  piety,  afterwards  visited  Carinthia,  and  con- 
firmed the  new  Christians  in  the  faith.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  century,  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  having  con- 
quered the  greater  part  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  establish- 
ed churches  throughout  his  dominions,  and  obliged  his  sub- 
jects to  adopt  the  Christian  religion.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  ninth  century,  St.  Anschar,  a  monk  of  Corby  in  West- 
phalia, laid  the  foundations  of  the  Church  in  Cimbria,  Den- 
mark, and  Sweden,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Anthbert, 
Ebbo,  and  many  other  pious  missionaries. 

The  eastern  Church  was  now  also  engaging  in  the  same 
holy  work.  Methodius  and  Cyril,  t^yo  Greek  monks,  con- 
verted to  Christianity  the  Mcesians,  Bulgarians,  Gazarians, 
Bohemians,  and  Moravians,  about  the  middle  of  this  cen- 
tury; and  the  Sclavonians,  Aretani,  and  other  nations  of 
Q^«  Dalmatia,  having  expressed  a  wish  to  embrace 
*  the  Christian  religion,  they  were  instructed  and 
baptised  by  missionaries  from  the  eastern  Church.  The 
vast,  nations  of  Russia  were  also  added  to  the  Christian 
Church  in  this  and  the  following  century;  first  by  the  per- 
suasions of  the  missionaries  sent  by  Ignatius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  and  afterwards  by  the  example  of  Wlodimir, 
the  sovereign  of  Russia,  who  was  baptised  in  987.  The 
savage  Normans,  who  had  invaded  and  seized  a  portion  of 
*  T>  Q19  France,  now  followed  the  example  of  their  duke 
Rollo,  and  embraced  the  faith ;  while  the  con- 
version  of  Sweden  was  completed  by  Sigfrid ;  and  that  of 

V    X  nnn      Norway  hy  Guthebald,  who  went  forth  on 

about  A.D.  990.       ,.,,..       ^  ,      ^,        ,      ,.  ^^ 

this  holy  mission  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Micislaus,  duke  of  Poland,  adopted  the  Christian  re- 
ligion in  995 ;  and  his  example  so  wrought  on  his  subjects, 
that  in  a  few  years  they  professed  the  faith,  and  many  epis- 
copal sees  were  founded  in  that  country.  Some  of  the  Hun- 
garians were  converted  and  baptised  by  Hierotheus,  a  bishop 


A.D.  680-1054.  FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH.  77 

who  was  sent  to  them  from  Constantinople  ;       v,    ♦  a  d  950 
but  the  conversion  of  that  nation  is  chiefly 
attributable  to  the  pious  zeal  of  their  king  Stephen,  who  hav- 
ing been  educated  a  Christian,  resolved  to  cause  his  subjects 
to  embrace  the  true  religion ;  and  having  subdued  a  revolt 
Df  his  pagan  subjects,  soon  after  his  accession  to  gg«- 

the  throne,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  with  earnest  prayer  and  almsgiving ;  and 
sending  for  Christian  teachers  from  the  adjoining  countries, 
he  encouraged  and  assisted  them  so  effectually,  that  idolatry 
was  entirely  banished  from  his  dominions,  and  ten  bishops 
were  ordained  for  the  superintendence  of  the  new  Churches. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ON  THE  FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
A.D.  680-1054. 

That  the  faith  of  Christians  during  this  piriod  did  not  vary 
from  what  it  had  formerly  been,  is  proved  by  the  universal 
adoption  of  the  Nicene  creed  as  the  rule  of  faith,  and  by 
the  veneration  felt  by  all  believers  for  the  decrees  of  the  six 
holy  oecumenical  synods.  The  Trinity,  incarnation,  atone- 
ment, the  necessity  of  Divine  grace,  original  sin,  the  need 
of  good  works,  and  all  the  other  doctrines  taught  from  the 
beginning  by  the  Church,  were  still  universally  believed. 
We  hear  little  indeed  in  these  ages,  comparatively  speaking, 
of  heresies :  those  which  did  appear  seem  not  to  have  had 
much  influence.  The  errors  concerning  our  Lord's  nature, 
which  were  taught  by  Elipandus  in  Spain  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, and  which  were  connected  with  the  Nestorian  heresy, 
were  condemned  by  the  great  council  of  Frankfort  in 
794,  and  they  disappeared  soon  afterwards.  The  doc- 
trines of  the  Pauliciai  s  in   the  ninth  century,  and  of  Be- 

7* 


78  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XII. 

rengarius*  in  the  eleventh,  seem  to  have  obtained  but  few 
adherents ;  and  we  can  scarcely  point  to  any  other  errors  in 
faith,  which  were  at  this  time  sustained  by  bodies  of  men. 
The  same  great  truths  of  religion  were  universally  adopted ; 
the  same  Scriptures  were  diligently  studied  by  all  who  had 
the  means  of  doing  so, — for  in  those  days,  before  the  inven- 
tion of  printing,  when  all  books  were  transcribed  by  manual 
labour,  they  were  both  scarce  and  expensive  ;  and  an  univer- 
sal appeal  was  made  to  the  sentiments  of  the  ancient  fathers 
and  councils  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible. 

The  grand  controversy  of  the  eighth  century  was  on  a 
point  of  Christian  morality — the  use  of  images.  It  is  ad- 
mitted, even  by  those  who  approve  most  highly  of  their  use, 
that  it  is  no  part  of  Christian  duty  to  possess  such  memorials  ; 
that  there  is  no  injunction  to  that  effect  in  holy  Scripture ; 
and  that  it  would  be  idolatrous  to  offer  them  any  adoration, 
as  if  they  were  deities,  or  to  attribute  to  them  any  peculiar 
power  in  themselves.  Yet  experience  informs  us  that  the  use 
of  images  cannot  long  continue  without  the  danger  of  such 
errors. 

We  have  already  seen  instances  of  a  tendency  to  super- 
stition with  regard  to  images.  This  was  carried  still  further  in 
the  East  in  the  course  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries ; 
so  that  the  people  in  order  to  do  honour  to  the  saints  and 
martyrs,  bowed,  lighted  candles,  and  offered  incense  before 
their  pictures.  It  is  true  that,  in  acting  thus,  it  was  in- 
tended rather  to  honour  the  saints  themselves  than  their 
pictures;  but  the  tendency  of  such  customs  to  cause  su- 
perstition and  even  idolatry  amongst  the  ignorant,  is  too  ob- 
vious  to  be  overlooked.     The   Greek   emperors;  Leo,  Con- 


*  [It  is  very  questionable  whether  Berengar  is  chargeable  with  any  error : 
indeed,  there  is  hardly  room  for  doiibt  that  his  troubles  grew  out  of  his  firm 
adherence  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  concerning  the  real  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist  in  its  simple  form,  in  opposition  to  the  novel  and 
heretical  explanations  of  Paschasius  Ratbert  and  others,  since  adopted  by 
the  Church  of  Rome. — Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.  680-1054.  IMAGES.  79 

stantine  Caballinus,  and  several  of  their  successors  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  seeing  these  abuses,  and  desirous 
to  r^ee  the  Church  from  them,  commenced  reformation  by 
breaking  d^wn  all  images,  and  persecuting  those  who  wished 
lo  '•otain  them.  To  accomplish  their  object,  originally  good, 
tb^  Iconoclasts  did  not  hesitate  to  condemn  the  use  of  any 
pictures,  as  absolutely  contrary  to  the  word  of  God,  and  thus 
«laced  themselves  in  the  attitude  of  arraigning  the  practice 
of  the  universal  Church  for  some  centuries  as  anti-Christian ; 
1  line  of  argument  which  was  as  inconsistent  with  trust  in 
the  Divine  promises  as  it  was  with  Christian  charity.  The 
western  Church  at  this  time  generally  permitted  the  use  of 
pictures  or  images,  but  forbade  any  sort  of  religious  honour 
or  worship  to  be  paid  to  them  ;  and  hence,  when  the  bishops 
of  the  East,  to  the  number  of  338,  assembled  in  „q. 

synod  at  Constantinople,  and  condemned  the  use 
of  images  as  idolatrous,  the  western  Churches  disapproved  of 
the  decree. 

After  many  years,  the  party  in  favour  of  images  obtained 
a  temporary  triumph  in  the  East,  on  a  change  of  govern- 
ment.   A  synod  of  3.50  bishops  at  Nice,  reversed  ^^^ 
the  decision  formerly  made  at  Constantinople, 
and  decreed  the  lawfulness  of  images,  and  the  propriety  of 
paying  to  them  a  certain  honour,  by  bowing,  lighting  candles, 
and  offering  incense  before  them,  which  honour  was  sup- 
posed to  pass  to  the  person  represented,  and  to  be  altogether 
different  from  the  worship  which  is  due  to  God  only.     But 
this  synod  was  soon  afterwards  rejected  by  the  eastern  Church, 
and  so  remained  till  the  year  842  ;  while  the  bishops  of  the 
West,  to  the  number  of  300,  in  the  great  synod  ^p . 
of  Frankfort,  annulled  the  decrees  of  the  synod 
of  Nice,  which  they  f  n-bade  to  be  numbered  amongst  the 
oecumenical  synods,    anJ  rejected    all  worship    of    images. 
The  western  Churches  re  oained  for  several  centuries  in  the 
sam.e  sentiments.     The  his  orians  and  other  writers,    from 
the  eighth  to  the  fourteenth  century,  almost  always  term  the 


90  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XII. 

synod  of  Nice  a  "pseudo-synod,"  or  "false  synod,"  and 
condemn  its  doctrine.  It  was  observed  by  a  Greek  writer  in 
the  time  of  the  crusades  (the  twelfth  century)  that  the  Ger- 
mans did  not  permit  the  use  of  images.  However,«at  length, 
superstition  in  this  respect  became  very  common  in  the  West, 
— an  evil  which  was  very  much  caused  by  the  support  always 
given  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  to  the  decisions  of  the  Nicene 
synod. 

It  appears  plainly,  from  a  review  of  the  whole  history,  that 
it  was  always  the  wish  and  intention  of  the  universal  Church, 
to  prevent  any  idolatrous  or  divine  worship  of  images,  and 
to  direct  the  veneration  of  Christians  to  the  persons  whom 
they  represent.  But  this  intention  could  not  be  realised  in 
the  case  of  the  ignorant  and  superstitious,  who  must  always 
form  a  great  portion  of  the  community ;  they  were  placed  in 
most  imminent  danger  of  worshipping  the  images  themselves 
with  divine  honours  ;  and  we  know  that  in  later  times  the 
abuses  in  this  respect  were  most  lamentable.  The  removal 
of  images  at  the  Reformation  was,  in  fact,  only  carrying  out 
the  intention  of  the  universal  Church  in  the  eighth  and  fol- 
lowing centuries,  when  experience  had  amply  proved  that 
they  could  not  generally  be  used  whhout  danger  of  idolatiy. 
It  had  been  held  by  Agobard,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  even  in 
the  ninth  century,  that  images  ought  to  be  destroyed  when 
they  gave  rise  to  idolatrous  abuses;  as  Hezekiah  had 
broken  the  brazen  serpent  when  it  was  worshipped  by  the 
people. 

In  the  ninth  century  the  doctrine  of  the  holy  eucharist  be- 
came the  subject  of  discussion.  It  had  never  b#en  denied  by 
the  Catholic  Church,  that  this  sacrament,  when  consecrated, 
continues  to  be  bread  and  wine,  according  to  the  words  of  the 
apostle,  "  The  bread  which  we  break,  is  it  not  the  commu- 
nion of  the  body  of  Christ?"  and  of  our  Lord,  "  I  will  drink 
no  more  of  this  fruit  of  the  vine,^'  &;c.  But  Paschasius 
Ratbert,  a  French  monk,  in  the  ninth  century,  attempted  to 
prove  that  the  sacrament  is  no  longer  bread  and  wine  after 


A.D.  680-1054.  PRIVATE  CONFESSION.  81 

the  consecration,  but  only  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
the  same  in  all  respects  with  that  which  was  born  of  the  Vir 
gin.  This  doctrine,  which  has  been  ternied  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  in  later  ages,  gradually  obtained  many 
adherents  in  the  western  Churches,  though  it  was  opposed  at 
first  by  several  of  the  most  eminent  divines.  Scotus,  in  op- 
posing  it,  fell  into  serious  errors,  as  he  declared  theeucharist 
to  be  a  bare  sign  of  the  body  and  bl-ood  of  Christ,  contrary 
to  the  universal  belief  of  the  Church  ;^  and  in  this  error  he 
was  followed  by  Berengarius  in  the  eleventh  century,*  whose 
doctrine  was  justly  condemned  by  several  councils ;  though 
it  is  to  be  regretted,  that  his  opponents  occasionally  used  ex- 
pressions with  reference  to  the  eucharist,  which  were  incon- 
sistent with  the  spiritual  character  of  that  holy  mystery. 
This  controversy  only  existed  in  the  western  Churches ;  the 
eastern  Churches  continued  to  retain  their  ancient  doctrines 
undisturbed. 

During  these  ages,  the  practice  of  private  confession  to  a 
priest  was  not  held  generally  to  be  a  matter  of  necessity. 
We  have  already  seen  this  custom  abolished  (as  a  pre-requi- 
site  to  the  reception  of  the  eucharist)  in  the  East,  by  Necta- 
rius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
by  the  majority  of  the  eastern  Church.  It  was  still  practised 
in  many  parts  of  the  West,  but  was  not  regarded  as  an  es- 
sential of  religion.  Bede  and  Alcuin  recommended  Chris- 
tians to  confess  to  the  ministers  of  God  all  the  grievous  sins 
which  they  could  remember.  But  others,  as  we  learn  from 
Alcuin  and  Haymo,  would  not  confess  their  sins  to  the  priest ; 

J  The  Calechism  of  the  Church  of  England  declares  that  "  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ"  are  "  verily  and  indeed  taken  and  received  by  the  faith- 
ful in  the  Lord's  supper."  And  the  twenty-seventh  Homily  says  that  "in 
the  supper  of  the  Lord  there  is  no  vain  ceremony,  no  bare  sign,  no  untrue 
figure  of  a  thing  absent." 

*  [This  was  long  held  to  be  the  case  ;  yet  not  without  doubt.  See  Mo- 
sheim.  But  it  has  lately  been  disproved,  by  the  publication  of  a  treatise 
of  Berengar,  fuller  and  later  than  any  before  known,  which  plainly  shows 
his  view  of  the  sacrament  to  have  been  diffesent  from  that  of  Scotus.  See 
above,  p*78^  iinte. — Am.  Ed.] 


82  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  Xlh 

but  said,  "it  was  sufficient  for  them  to  confess  their  sins  to 
God  alone,  provided  that  they  ceased  from  those  sins  for  the 

„^„  time  to  come."  The  council  of  Cavaillon,in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Charlemagne,  aknowledged 
that  it  was  still  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  confession  to  the 
priests  was  necessary,  in  addition  to  confession  before  God  ; 
and  they  attributed  the  pardon  of  sins  to  the  latter.  "  Some 
persons  say  that  they  ought  to  confess  their  sins  only  to  God, 
and  some  think  that  they  are  to  be  confessed  unto  the  priests  ; 
both  of  which,  not  without  great  fruit,  is  practised  within  the 
holy  Church.  Namely,  thus  ;  that  we  both  confess  our  sins 
unto  God,  who  is  the  forgiver  of  sins,  (saying  with  David, 
*  I  acknowledge  my  sins  unto  thee,  and  mine  iniquity  have  I 
not  hid.'  '  I  said,  I  will  confess  against  myself,  my  trans- 
gressions unto  the  Lord ;  and  -thou  forgavest  the  iniquity  of 
my  sin ;)  and,  according  to  the  institution  of  the  apostle,  con- 
fess our  sins  one  unto  another,  and  pray  one  for  another,  that 
we  may  be  healed.  The  confession  therefore  which  is  made 
unto  God  purgeth  sins  ;  but  that  which  is  made  unto  the 
priest  teacheth  in  what  sort  those  sins  should  be  purged." 

It  may  perhaps  be  advisable  to  carry  our  view  of  this  sub- 
ject beyond  the  period  now  under  consideration,  and  to  no- 
tice the  difference  of  opinions  in  the  western  Church  pre- 
viously to  the  Reformation.  Gratian,  about  1130,  collected 
the  opposite  decisions  of  the  ancients  as  to  the  necessity  of 
external  confession,  and  concluded  thus :  "  Upon  what  au 
thorities,  or  upon  what  strength  of  reasons,  both  these 
opinions  are  grounded,  I  have  briefly  laid  open.  But  whether 
of  them  we  should  rather  cleave  to,  is  reserved  to  the  judg- 
ment  of  the  reader.     For  both  of  them  have  for  their  fa- 

^  „^  _  vourers  both  wise  and  religious  men."  The  coun- 
cil of  Lateran  directed  the  faithful  to  confess 
their  sins  to  a  priest  once  a-year  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this, 
the  necessity  of  such  a  confession  was  not  generally  admitted. 
Semeca,  the  earliest  commentator  on  the  canon  law ;  Michael 
of  Bononia,  prior  general  of  the  Carmelites ;  Panormitanus, 


A.D.  680-1054.  FRUITS  OF  FAITH.  63 

and  a  number  of  eminent  writers,  asserted  that  confession  to 
a  priest  was  not  instituted  by  God,  but  introduced  solely  by 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  and  that  it  was  not  necessary  for 
the  pardon  of  sin.  And  this  difference  of  opinion  existed  in 
all  Churches  of  the  Roman  communion,  until  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent,  when  the  divine  institution  and  absolute  neces- 
sity of  confession  to  a  priest  were  declared  to  be  articles  of 
faith,  which  no  one  should  deny  on  pain  of  anathema. 


CHAPTER  Xlir. 

ON  THE  FRUITS  OF  FAITH. 

A.D.  660-1054. 


I  HAVE  already  adverted  to  the  great  difficulties  under 
which  religion  now  laboured  from  the  disorganization  of  tem- 
poral governments,  and  the  ravages  of  barbarians.  During 
these  ages,  nothing  was  more  frequent  than  the  usurpation  of 
ecclesiastical  revenues  by  kings  and  feudal  lords,  or  their 
desecration  by  the  appointment  of  clergy  who  were  incapa- 
citated by  youth  or  ignorance  for  the  discharge  of  their  du- 
ties, and  who  had  nothing  to  recommend  them  but  nobility 
of  birth.  These  abuses  occurred  particularly  within  the 
dominions  of  the  emperors  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany, 
where  it  had  been  the  policy  of  Charlemagne  and  his  succes- 
sors to  invest  the  bishops  and  monasteries  with  great  territo- 
ries and  princely  dignities,  in  the  hope  that  these  ecclesias- 
tics would  prove  more  faithful  and  obedient  subjects  than  the 
temporal  barons,  whose  turbulence  they  had  found  it  so  diffi- 
cult to  repress.  Churches  and  monasteries  were  frequent- 
ly burned  or  pillaged  by  the  feudal  chieftains,  or  by  Saracens, 
Normans,  and  Danes.  Thus  the  schools  of  learning  were 
extinguished,  discipline  became  relaxed  amidst  the  general 
confusion;  and  while  the  clerg}'  were  in  many  places  insuf- 


84  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XIII. 

ficiently  educated,  the  laity  fell  into  extreme  ignorance  and 
degradation.  We  find  grievous  lamentations  over  such  evils 
amongst  the  writers  of  these  ages  ;  yet  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  there  was  a  spirit  of  repentance  at  work  which 
could  not  fail  to  produce  very  salutary  efiects.  Those 
bishops  who,  when  assembled  in  solemn  council,  had  the 
courage  to  proclaim  before  the  world  their  own  remissness, 
and  to  confess  their  sins,  with  resolution  of  amendment,  could 
neither  have  been  deficient  in  a  knowledge  of  their  duty,  nor 
in  a  spirit  of  Christian  humility  and  repentance. 

Hervey,  archbishop  of  Rheimo,  and  eleven  olhef  bishops 
QOQ  assembled  at  Trosle  in  France,  spoke  thus  :  "  As 
the  first  men  lived  without  law  and  without  fear, 
given  up  to  their  passions,  so  every  one  now  doeth  as  ho 
pleases,  despising  all  laws  human  and  divine,  and  the  direc- 
tions of  the  bishops.  The  powerful  oppress  the  weak :  vio- 
lence  against  the  poor,  and  the  plunder  of  ecclesiastical  pos- 
sessions, are  universal.  And  that  it  may  not  be  imagined 
that  we  spare  ourselves — we  who  ought  to  correct  others : 
we  have  indeed  the  name,  but  we  do  not  fulfil  the  duties  of 
bishops.  We  neglect  preaching  ;  we  see  those  who  are 
committed  to  our  care  abandon  God  and  fall  into  sin,  with- 
out addressing  them  and  stretching  forth  our  hands  ;  and  if 
we  wish  to  reprove  them,  they  say  as  in  the  gospel,  that  we 
bind  on  them  heavy  burdens,  and  will  not  touch  them  our- 
selves with  the  end  of  our  fingers.  Thus  the  Lord's  flock 
perishes  through  our  silence.  Let  us  think  what  sinner  has 
ever  been  converted  by  our  discourses,  or  who  has  renounced 
debauchery,  avarice,  pride.  Yet  we  shall  render  an  account 
without  ceasing  of  this  business,  which  has  been  intrusted 
to  us,  in  order  that  we  may  gain  profit  by  it."  "  It  has  hap- 
pened through  our  negligence,  our  ignorance,  and  that  of 
our  brethren,  that  there  are  found  in  the  Church  an  innumer- 
able multitude  of  people  of  every  sex  and  condition,  who  ar- 
rive at  old  age  without  ever  being  instructed  in  the  faith,  so 
that  they  are  ignorant  even  of  the  words  of  the  Creed  and 


A.D.   680-1054.  VENERABLE  iJEDE.  85 

Lord's  Prayer.  It"  there  should  seem  to  be  any  thing  good  in 
their  lives,  yet  how  can  they  do  good  works  without  the  foun- 
dation of  faith?''  These  expressions,  and  the  earnest  exhor- 
tations of  the  synod,  show  that  there  was  still  a  spirit  of  real 
repentance  in  this  part  of  the  Church,  notwithstanding  the 
multitude  of  evils  and  sins. 

Nor  lias  there  ever  been  a  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Church,  when  the  spirit  of  religion,  where  it  existed,  was 
more  ardent  and  earnest.  The  religion  of  these  times  was 
less  learned,  less  accomplished,  less  free  from  superstition, 
than  that  of  earlier  ages  ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
been  less  zealous,  less  productive  of  good  works.  Its  char- 
acteristics were,  the  deepest  humility,  renouncement  of  self, 
denial  of  the  passions,  and  even  the  enjoyments  and  pleasures 
of  the  world ;  the  concentration  of  all  wishes  and  desires  in 
the  glory  of  God,  and  the  promotion  of  practical  religion; 
boundless  charity  to  the  poor ;  the  foundation  of  churches, 
schools,  and  religious  houses ;  diligent  study  of  the  Scrip- 
ture, singing  of  psalms,  and  much  prayer.  We  see  not  mere- 
ly one  or  two,  but  hundreds  of  men  forsaking  all  their  earth- 
ly prospects,  the  resorts  of  their  youth  and  the  paths  of  am- 
bition, to  devote  themselves  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen. 
We  see  them  desiring  and  rejoicing  to  die  for  Christ ;  and  by 
their  patience,  piety,  and  wisdom,  bringing  multitudes  of 
heathen  into  the  way  of  salvation.  We  sec  many  of  the 
most  powerful  monarchs  engaged  in  all  the  exercises  of  con- 
tinual devotion  and  charity,  or  descending  from  the  summit 
of  earthly  grandeur  to  spend  the  remainder  of  their  days  in 
penitence  and  prayer.  However  sad  may  have  been  the 
calamities  of  tiie  Church,  and  however  great  the  faults  of 
Christians,  yet  when  we  see  such  things  as  these,  we  cannot 
refrain  from  the  conviction  that  the  Spirit  of  God  v/asstill  in- 
fluencing the  hearts  of  many  people;  nor  fail  to  perceive 
that  the  Lord  was  still,  according  to  his  promise,  always 
with  his  Church. 

Beda,  the  most  learned  and  celebrated  writer  of  the  eighth 
8  ■ 


86  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIII. 

century,  lived  and  died  an  humble  recluse  ii.  the  monastery 
of  Yarrow  in  England.  All  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  attain- 
ment of  various  knowledge,  diversified  only  by  the  monastic 
exercises  of  psalmody,  prayer,  and  manual  labour.  His 
earlier  years  were  applied  to  the  acquisition  of  Latin,  Greek, 
versification,  astronomy,  arithmetic,  music,  and  other  sci- 
ences,  as  well  as  to  the  study  of  holy  Scripture,  to  which 
last  he  gave  himself  more  entirely  when  he  was  ordained  a 
presbyter.  His  works,  which  consist  of  commentaries  on 
Scripture,  homilies,  lives  of  saints,  an  admirable  history  of 
the  Church  of  England  from  the  earliest  period,  and  other 
treatises,  fill  eight  folio  volumes.  Bede  was  eminently  dis- 
tinguished for  piety,  humility,  and  all  the  graces  of  the 
Christian  character ;  he  was  diligent  as  a  preacher,  as  an  in- 
structor  of  the  ignorant,  and  as  a  spiritual  adviser  of  those 
who  sought  his  aid.  Amongst  his  friends  was  a  bishop  named 
Egbert,  to  whom  Bede  addressed  an  excellent  letter  of  ad- 
vice. "Before  all  things,"  he  said,  "  avoid  useless  conversa- 
tions, and  apply  yourself  to  meditate  on  the  holy  Scriptures, 
especially  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  Timothy  and  Titus, 
and  also  on  the  Pastoral  of  St.  Gregory,  and  his  homilies  on 
the  Gospel.  As  it  is  not  fitting  to  employ  the  sacred  vessels 
in  profane  uses,  it  is  not  less  unbecoming  that  he  who  is 
consecrated  to  minister  at  the  altar  should,  on  leaving  the 
church,  discourse  or  act  in  a  manner  unbecoming  his  sta- 
tion." He  urged  the  bishop  to  establish  presbyters  in  every 
village  to  instruct  and  administer  the  sacraments,  and  that 
they  ought  to  take  especial  care  that  all  people  knew  by  heart 
the  Creed  and  Lord's  Prayer  ;  and  that  those  who  did  not 
understand  Latin  ought  to  repeat  them  in  their  own  language, 
whether  they  were  laity,  clergy,  or  monks.  Bede  had  al- 
ready  translated  them  into  English,  for  the  use  of  many  ig- 
norant  clergy.  He  also  exhorted  the  bishop  to  teach  the 
benefits  of  frequent  communion,  as  practised  in  Italy,  France, 
Africa,  Greece,  and  the  East ;  for  even  the  most  pious  per- 
sons  in  England,  as  he  says,  only  communicated  at  Christ- 


A.D.  680-1054.  VENERABLE  BEDE.  87 

mas,  Epiphany,  and  Easter ;  though  there  were  iniinite  mul- 
titudes of  people  who  could  easily  communicate  on  all  Sundays 
and  feast-days,  as  was  the  custom  at  Rome. 

Bede  died  in  735,  aged  sixty-three.  About  a  fortnight  be- 
fore Easter,  he  experienced  a  difficulty  of  breathing  ;  but 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  time,  till  Ascension-day,  in  joy 
and  thanksgiving,  instructing  his  disciples  by  day,  and  spend- 
ing much  of  his  time,  even  at  night,  in  singing  psalms.  He 
frequently  repeated  parts  of  Scripture  appropriate  to  his 
state,  some  of  which  he  had  translated  into  English  verse. 
He  was  still  engaged  in  dictating  to  Cuthbert  a  translation  of 
St.  John's  Gospel  into  English,  and  was  thus  employed  on 
Ascension-day,  when  feeling  his  end  approach,  he  sent  hasti- 
ly for  the  presbyters  of  the  monastery,  and  having  presented 
to  them  some  small  memorials  of  his  regard,  he  bespoke  their 
religious  assistance  and  prayers  for  him,  and  then,  extended 
on  the  pavement  of  his  cell,  full  of  confidence  and  joy,  and 
singing  Gloria  Patri,  he  departed  to  his  eternal  reward. 

Such  virtues  were  not  confined  to  the  cloister  in  these 
ages  ;  they  sometimes  adorned  the  throne.  Luitprand,  king 
of  the  Lombards,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century, 
affords  an  example  of  this.  He  v/as  pious,  chaste,  good, 
valiant,  and  wise,  though  he  was  ignorant  of  letters.  He 
applied  himself  to  prayer  and  almsgiving  ;  caused  an  oratory 
to  be  built  in  his  palace,  and  established  clergy  to  chaunt  di- 
vine  service  for  him  every  day :  he  built  churches  at  every 
place  where  he  resided.  Carloman,  prince  of  the  Franks, 
was  celebrated    for  his  victories   over  the  „^.  „-^ 

Germans,  Bavarians,  and  Saxons.  He  for  *  * 
a  long  time  protected  and  encouraged  the  missionary  labours 
of  St.  Boniface,  and  showed  many  indications  of  a  religious 
mind.  At  length,  finding  himself  a  widower,  and  being 
penitent  for  the  severities  he  had  formerly  exercised  on  some 
of  his  rebellious  subjects,  he  resolved  to  retire  from  the 
world,  and  to  devote  himself  to  the  worship  of  God.  He 
accordingly  resigned  his  throne,  and  passed  the  remainder 


88  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIII. 

of  his  days  in  the  monastery  founded  by  St.  Benedict  at  Mount 
Casino,  where  he  exercised  every  sort  of  self-denial,  and,  like 
the  other  brethren,  undertook  the  humble  offices  of  keeping 
the  sheep,  labouring  in  the  garden,  and  even  serving  in  the 
kitchen. 

Religion    was  deeply  indebted  to  the    Emperor   Charle- 

^no  01  A         mao;ne.    He  devoted  himself  with  the  great- 
A.D.  /68-814.  °     ,       .  .  ,  °, 

est  zeal  to  its  propagation  amongst  the  hea- 
then nations  subject  to  his  dominion ;  and  endeavoured  to 
correct  the  disorders  into  which  the  Churches  of  France  and 
Germany  had  fallen.  His  last  days,  after  the  coronation  of 
his  son  Louis,  were  occupied  in  correcting  the  text  of  the  four 
Evangelists,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Greeks  and  Sy- 
rians. Charlemagne  had  long  shown  a  great  zeal  for  re- 
ligion ;  he  never  failed,  while  his  health  permitted,  to  attend 
divine  service  daily,  morning  and  evening.  He  took  great 
care  that  the  service  should  be  conducted  with  decorum  and 
propriety;  supplied  his  chapels  with  abundance  of  vestments 
and  ornaments ;  and  being  perfectly  instructed  in  the  best 
manner  of  reading  and  singing,  he  corrected  the  mode  of 
performing  both ;  but  he  himself  never  read  publicly  in 
church,  but  contented  himself  with  singing  in  a  low  tone  and 
with  others.  His  alms  were  not  only  liberally  bestowed  in 
his  own  dominions,  but  on  all  the  poor  and  distressed  Chris- 
tians in  Syria,  Egypt,  Africa,  Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and 
Carthage ;  and  he  cultivated  the  friendship  of  unbelieving 
princes,  with  a  view  to  assuage  the  sufferings  of  the  Christians 
under  their  dominion.     He  died  a.d.  814. 

The  Emperor  Louis,  his  son,  who  died  in  840,  usually  spent 
the  whole  time  of  Lent  in  singing  psalms,  prayer,  attendance 
on  divine  service,  distributing  alms,  and  other  works  of  piety  ; 
so  that  he  scarcely  took  more  than  a  day  or  two  to  mount  his 
horse  for  the  purpose  of  exercise. 

But  I  must  now  turn  to  some  of  the  eminent  missionaries 
who  adorned  the  Church  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries. 

St.  Bo'iface,  or  Winfrid,  was  a  native  of  England,  whera 


4.D.  680-1054.  BONIFACE.  89 

he  embraced  the  monastic  life  at  an  early  age,  and  was  or- 
dained presbyter,  by  desire  of  his  abbot,  in  710  ;  after  which 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruction  of  the  people,  and  la- 
boured for  the  salvation  of  souls.  When  he  was  held  in  most 
high  esteem  in  his  own  country,  he  resolved  to  forsake  all 
the  worldly  prospects  which  were  opening  on  him,  and  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen.  Accom- 
panied  by  some  monks,  he  embarked,  and  passed  over  into 
Friesland  and  Hesse,  where,  after  some  time,  he  converted 
and  baptised  many  thousands  of  the  people,  and  founded  a 
monastery.  Whilst  he  was  thus  occupied,  Boniface  and  his 
companions  were  frequently  reduced  to  great  difficulty,  from 
the  extreme  poverty  of  the  people.  They  were  obliged  to 
live  by  the  labour  of  their  own  hands,  and  were  exposed  to 
continual  danger  from  the  inroads  of  the  pagan  Saxons.  At 
length  Boniface  went  to  Rome,  by  desire  of  Pope  Gregory 
II.,  who  ordained  him  bishop  for  the  mission  among  the  hea- 
then east  of  the  Rhine.  Returning  to  the  scene  of  his  labours, 
he  confirmed  those  whom  he  had  baptised,  and  having  boldly 
cut  down  a  tree  of  immense  size,  called  the  oak  of  Jupiter, 
which  was  held  in  superstitious  veneration  by  the  people,  he 
gained  a  large  increase  of  converts.  Boniface  felt  himself 
much  impeded  in  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel  by  the 
sinful  lives  and  errors  of  the  neighbouring  bishops  and  cler- 
gy ;  and  consulted  Gregory  and  other  bishops,  whether  he 
ought  to  hold  any  communion  with  such  men.  He  corres- 
ponded frequently  with  Daniel,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  very  judicious  advice,  as  to  the  best  method 
of  arguing  with  the  heathen.  Boniface  was  a  diligent  student 
of  the  Scriptures.  In  a  letter  to  his  friend  Daniel,  _,»-, 

he  says,  "  I  pray  you  to  send  me  the  book  of  the 
prophets,  which  the  abbot  Winbert,  formerly  my  master, 
left  me  when  dying,  in  which  six  prophets  are  comprised  in 
the  same  volume,  written  in  very  distinct  letters.  You  can- 
not send  me  a  greater  consolation  in  my  old  age  ;  for  I  can- 
not  find  a  book  like  it  in  this  country;  and  my  sight  being 


90  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIU. 

feei)]e,    I   cannot  easily   distinguish   small   and   contracted 
letters." 

The  fame  of  St.  Boniface  now  attracted  a  great  number 
of  religious  men  from  England,  who  assisted  him  in  his 
apostolic  labours,  and  converted  multitudes  of  people  in 
Hesse  and  Thuringia,  so  that  in  732  he  was  made  archbishop 
(his  see  being  fixed  at  Mayence,)  and  empowered  to  consti- 
tute bishops  to  assist  him,  which  he  accordingly  did  in  Bava 
ria,  and  other  parts  of  Germany.  In  742  he  held  a  council 
under  the  protection  of  Carloman,  prince  of  the  Franks,  foi 
the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  the  west  of  France,  where 
there  had  been  no  metropolitan  for  eighty  years,  no  councils 
had  been  held,  and  the  sees  had  been  filled  either  with  lay- 
men, or  with  bishops  altogether  unworthy  of  the  name.  In 
this  council  it  was  resolved  that  the  metropolitans  should  in 
future  request  the  pall  from  the  bishop  of  Rome.  The  views 
of  St.  Boniface,  with  regard  to  the  duties  of  his  station,  ap- 
pear in  a  letter  to  Cuthbert,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  writ* 
ten  about  this  time,  in  which,  after  complaining  of  the  dif- 
ficulties which  beset  him,  he  says,  "  Let  us  combat  for  the 
Lord ;  for  we  are  in  days  of  affliction  and  anguish.  Let  us 
die,  if  it  be  the  will  of  God,  for  the  holy  laws  of  our  fcthers, 
that  with  them  we  may  arrive  at  an  eternal  inheritance.  Let 
us  not  be  dumb  dogs,  sentinels  asleep,  or  hirelings  who  flee 
at  the  sight  of  the  wolf;  let  us  be  careful  and  vigilant  shep- 
herds, preaching  to  great  and  small,  to  rich  and  poor,  to  every 
age  and  every  condition,  as  God  shall  give  us  power,  in  sea- 
son and  out  of  season." 

In  752  he  crowned  Pepin  king  of  France ;  and  though 
now  full  of  years,  of  honours,  and  of  fame,  he  continued  to 
act  as  a  missionary  to  the  end  of  his  life.  We  find  him  in  754 
returning  from  Friesland,  where  he  had  been  for  a  long  time 
preaching  to  the  heathen.  In  the  following  year,  having  or- 
dained Lullus  to  be  his  successor,  and  resigned  his  see  to 
him,  as  he  was  about  to  depart  to  Friesland,  he  said  to  the 
nrw  archbishop,  "  The  time  of  my  death  draws  near :  com- 


A.D.  680-1054.  BONIFACE.  91 

plete,  my  son,  the  building  of  the  churches  I  have  begun  in 
Thuriiigia :  apply  thee  earnestly  to  the  conversion  of  the 
people :  finish  the  church  of  Fulda,  and  bury  me  there. 
Prepare  all  that  is  necessary  for  my  journey  ;  and  place  with 
my  books  a  winding  sheet  to  bury  me."  At  these  words, 
LuUus  wept.  St.  Boniface  then  exhorted  the  abbess  Lioba, 
his  old  friend,  to  remain  still  in  that  foreign  country,  and  to 
observe  her  profession,  looking  for  an  eternal  reward  ;  and 
he  commanded  that  she  should  be  buried  in  his  tomb.  He 
then  departed  by  the  Rhine  to  Friesland,  where  he  converted 
and  baptised  thousands  of  the  heathen,  overthrew  their  tem- 
ples, and  raised  churches.  He  was  assisted  by  the  bishop 
of  Utrecht,  and  many  priests,  deacons,  and  monks.  He 
had  fixed  a  day  for  the  confirmation  of  his  converts,  and  was 
encamped  with  his  brethren  on  the  banks  of  a  river ;  when 
on  the  day  appointed,  they  were  surrounded  by  a  furious 
band  of  heathens.  The  attendants  of  St.  Boniface  went  forth  to 
oppose  them  by  force ;  but  he  called  his  clergy  together,  and 
said  to  his  attendants,  "  My  children,  cease  to  combat ;  the 
Scripture  instructs  us  not  to  render  evil  for  evil.  The  day 
which  I  have  long  expected  is  come  ;  put  your  hope  in  God, 
and  he  shall  save  your  souls."  He  then  exhorted  his  clergy 
and  companions  to  prepare  themselves  courageously  for  mar- 
tyrdom, and  soon  after  fell  beneath  the  swords  of  the  heathen, 
in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age. 

Gregory,  a  disciple  of  Boniface,  governed  the  church 
newly  founded  at  Utrecht,  where  he  collected,  with  great 
trouble  and  expense,  many  volumes  of  the  holy  Scriptures ; 
and  he  also  preached  to  the  heathen  in  Friesland.  Two  of 
his  brothers  having  been  murdered  by  robbers,  the  murderers 
were  arrested,  and  sent  bound  to  him,  to  suffer  death  in 
whatever  manner  he  should  please  ;  for  by  the  laws  of  that 
barbarous  people,  the  nearest  relative  of  a  murdered  person 
was  invested  with  this  power.  Gregory  ordered  them  to  be 
washed,  clothed,  and  fed  ;  then  he  said  to  them,  "  Go  in 
peace  ;  never  again  commit  such  a  deed,  lest  a  worse  thing 


92  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XIII. 

happen  to  you ;  and  beware  of  the  other  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased." Gregory  was  simple  in  his  habits ;  pretended  not 
to  hear  what  was  unkindly  said  of  him  ;  and  treated  his  ca- 
lumniators as  if  they  were  his  best  friends.  Whenever  he 
received  any  money,  he  immediately  distributed  it  amongst 
the  poor,  keeping  no  valuables  whatsoever,  except  the  sacred 
vessels  of  the  church.  When  this  holy  man  felt  his  end  ap- 
proaching, he  caused  himself  to  be  carried  into  the  church, 
and  there,  having  made  his  prayer,  and  received  the  body 
and  blood  of  our  Saviour,  he  died — his  last  look  fixed  on  the 
altar. 

Lebuin,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  and  a  disciple  of  Gregory, 
PQO  '^  10  pi"eachcd  among  the  Saxons  in  Germany  ; 
and  on  one  occasion,  hearing  that  a  great 
assembly  of  the  nation  was  to  take  place,  he  presented  him- 
self on  the  day  appointed,  arrayed  in  his  vestments,  with  the 
Gospel  and  the  cross  in  his  hands.  The  assembly  commenced 
by  sacrificing  to  their  false  gods;  in  the  midst  of  which, 
Lebuin  began  with  a  loud  voice  to  preach  the  Gospel,  and 
exhorted  the  people  to  turn  from  those  superstitions  to  the  v/or- 
ship  of  the  true  God ;  for  that  otherwise,  he  predicted,  they 
would  suffer  most  grievous  calamities,  and  be  reduced  to  cap- 
tivity by  a  neighbouring  prince.  When  the  Saxons  were 
about  to  deprive  him  of  life  for  this  boldness,  one  of  them 
named  Buto,  who  was  generally  respected,  said,  "Listen  to 
me,  ye  that  are  wise :  the  ambassadors  of  the  neighbouring 
people  have  often  come  to  us,  and  we  have  received  them 
peaceably,  listened  to  their  proposals,  and  sent  them  away 
with  gifts.  Here  is  an  ambassador  of  the  great  God,  who 
brings  to  you  salutary  promises  from  Him ;  and  you  reject,  and 
wish  to  slay  him  :  ye  ought  to  fear  God's  anger."  This  dis- 
course had  such  an  effect  on  the  Saxons,  that  Lebuin  departed 
in  safety,  and  continued  his  missionary  labours. 

There  were  several  instances  in  these  ages,  of  martyrdoms 
for  the  name  of  Christ.  A  remarkable  example  of  this  oc- 
curs in  the  history  of  the  ninth  century.     The  chief  of  the 


A.D.  680-1054.  MARTYRS  OF  AMORIUM.  93 

Saracens  having  taken  the  town  of  Amorium  in  ggg 

Asia  Minor,  sent  the  principal  men  and  the  mili- 
tary officers  to  Bagdad,  where  they  underwent  a  long  and 
rigorous  imprisonment ;  and  when  it  was  supposed  that 
their  patience  was  exhausted,  every  possible  effort  was  made 
to  induce  them  to  change  their  religion.  But  in  vain  did  the 
most  learned  Mahomedan  doctors  assail  their  faith  with  ar- 
guments, promises,  and  threats  :  all  were  alike  fruitless.  At 
the  end  of  seven  years  of  imprisonment,  they  were  again 
offered  liberty  and  life,  on  condition  of  joining  in  the  Moslem 
worship.  The  renegade  who  made  this  offer  exhorted  them, 
to  give  an  external  submission,  for  that  God  would  surely 
pardon  them,  on  account  of  the  necessity  in  which  they  were 
placed.  This  insidious  advice  was  rejected.  On  the  follow- 
ing day  the  Christians  were  brought  forth  from  their  prison ; 
and  the  caliph's  officer,  after  inquiring  their  resolution,  said, 
"  You  will  not  then  pray  with  the  caliph  ?  I  know  that  there 
are  some  of  you  who  desire  to  do  so  ;  when  the  remainder  shall 
see  how  these  are  honoured,  they  will  deplore  their  own  evil 
fate."  The  Christians  replied  with  one  voice,  "  We  pray 
the  only  true  God,  that  not  only  the  caliph,  but  the  whole 
nation  of  the  Arabs,  may  renounce  the  errors  of  Mahomet, 
and  adore  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  announced  by  the  prophets 
and  the  apostles.  So  far  are  we  from  renouncing  light  for 
darkness."  "Beware,"  replied  the  officer,  "  of  what  ye 
say,  lest  ye  repent  it.  Your  disobedience  will  bring  grievous 
torments  upon  you."  They  answered,  "  We  commend  our 
souls  to  God,  and  hope  that,  even  to  our  last  breath,  he  will 
give  us  strength  not  to  renounce  this  faith."  The  officer  said, 
"  At  the  day  of  judgment  ye  shall  be  reproved  for  leaving 
your  children  orphans,  and  your  wives  widowed.  The 
wealth  of  Egypt  might  enrich  your  descendants,  even  to  the 
tenth  generation."  The  Christians  cried,  "  Anathema  to 
Mahomet,  and  to  all  who  acknowledge  him  as  a  prophet !" 
Then  their  hands  were  bound  behind  them,  and  they  were 


04  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIII 

brought  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Tigris,  where  they  were  al 
executed,  according  to  their  rank. 

We  have  already  seen,   that  the  study  of  Scripture  was 
frequent  in  these  ages.      Lupus,  abbot  of  Ferrieres,   in  the 

828  861  ^^^'^^  century,  writing  to  Godeschalch,  a 
man  of  a  vain  and  inquisitive  turn  of  mind, 
speaks  thus :  "  I  exhort  you,  my  venerable  brother,  not  to 
fatigue  your  mind  with  such  questions,  lest  in  occupying  your- 
self too  much  therewith,  you  may  be  unable  to  examine  or 
to  teach  what  is  more  useful.  Why  inquire  so  much  into 
that  which  it  may  be  unfit  for  us  to  know  ?  Let  us  exercise 
ourselves  in  the  vast  field  of  the  holy  Scriptures  ;  apply  our- 
selves entirely  to  study  them,  and  unite  prayer  with  study. 
It  will  be  worthy  of  the  goodness  of  God  to  manifest  him- 
self to  us  in  the  manner  most  suitable  to  us,  when  we  do  not 
inquire  into  what  is  above  us."  The  Council  of  Pavia  in 
850,  in  giving  instructions  with  regard  to  the  life  and  con- 
duct of  a  bishop,  said,  "  He  shall  meditate  continually  on 
holy  Scripture,  in  order  to  instruct  his  clergy  accurately, 
and  to  preach  to  the  people  according  to  their  understand- 
ing." The  instruction  of  the  people  was  carried  on  chiefly 
by  catechising  and  sermons,  which  were   delivered  in  the 

QOQ  language  of  each  countr}'.  Jonas,  bishop  of  Or- 
leans, in  writing  on  the  duties  of  the  laity,  re- 
commends to  parents  and  godfathers  the  instruction  of  chil- 
dren, and  complains  that  the  ancient  penitential  discipline 
was  much  relaxed,  and  that  most  of  the  laity  received  the 
eucharist  only  three  times  a-year.  Several  bishops  were 
very  active  in  the  discharge  of  their  sacred  duties.  Thus  it  is 
said  that  Wolfgang,  bishop  of  Ratisbon,  who  died  in  994, 
preached  often  to  his  people,  who  came  to  hear  him  with 
great  eagerness.  His  discourses  were  simple  and  intelligi- 
ble, but  strong  and  touching.  He  penetrated  to  the  depths 
of  their  hearts,  and  caused  floods  of  tears  to  flow.  When 
he  visited  the  clergy  of  his  diocese,  he  carefully  instructed 


A.D.  680-1054.  KING  ALFRED.  95 

them  in  their  duties,  and  particularly  urged  them  to  purity 
of  life. 

St.  Fidus,  bishop  of  Meissen  in  Germany,  who  died  in 
1015,  afforded  another  example  of  zeal  in  the  performance 
of  his  duties.  Brought  up  in  a  religious  community  at 
Magdeburgh,  he  only  accepted  the  episcopal  office  that  he 
might  win  souls  to  God.  His  self-denial  was  very  great: 
He  was  continually  occupied  for  the  remaining  twenty-three 
years  of  his  life  in  preaching,  baptising,  confirming,  not 
only  in  his  own,  but  in  many  other  dioceses.  The  continual 
tears,  which  expressed  his  penitence  and  humility,  are  said 
to  have  weakened  his  sight.  He  often  went  with  bare  feet 
on  his  journeys  ;  and  when  provision  failed  him,  or  he  found 
himself  suffering  some  other  difficulty  or  hardship,  he  re- 
turned thanks  to  God,  and  desired  his  companions  to  do  the 
^ame. 

England  produced  many  religious  princes  in  these  ages, 
the    most  conspicuous   of  whom  was  King  q„^  p^^ 

Alfred,  whose  undaunted  courage  in  adver- 
sity, and  wisdom  in  prosperity,  justly  gained  for  him  the  re- 
putation of  being  the  greatest  monarch  of  his  age.  The 
piety  of  his  private  life  was  truly  remarkable.  He  divided 
his  revenue  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of  which  he  applied 
entirely  to  works  of  charity,  in  the  proportions  of  one 
quarter  to  the  poor  generally ;  another  to  two  monasteries  he 
had  founded  ;  a  third  to  the  schools  he  had  established ;  and 
a  fourth  to  the  monasteries  in  general,  not  only  in  England, 
but  abroad.  His  time  was  also  divided  into  two  equal  parts, 
one  of  which  was  given  to  religion.  He  attended  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist  eveiy  day  ;  joined  in  divine  service 
seven  other  times  in  the  course  of  the  day ;  and  even  went 
to  the  church  secretly  at  night  to  pray.  He  devoted  time  to 
reading  and  meditation,  and  always  carried  with  him  the 
Psalter  and  Prayer  book,  and  a  sheet  of  paper,  on  which  he 
wrote  every  day  the  passages  of  Scripture  which  touched 
him  the  most ;  then  having  collected  these  sheets,  he  made  a 


06  ECCLESIASTICAL    niSTORT.  CH.  XIIl. 

manual,  which  he  used  to  read  with  singular  pleasure.  King 
Alfred  found  the  education  of  the  clergy  and  people  reduced 
to  the  lowest  ebb  when  he  ascended  the  throne :  this  effect 
had  been  produced  by  the  dreadful  ravages  of  the  Danes, 
and  the  almost  total  destruction  of  monasteries,  which  were 
at  that  time  the  only  schools  of  learning.  As  soon  as  pub- 
lie  tranquillity  was  restored,  Alfred  applied  himself  to  the  re- 
vival of  literature  and  learning ;  and  for  this  purpose  he  sent 
for  the  most  learned  men  who  could  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  and  afforded  every  possible  encourage- 
ment  to  the  instruction  of  the  clergy  and  people.  At  this 
period  there  was  a  celebrated  school  at  Oxford,  which  seems 
to  have  existed  for  some  time,  and  which  was  in  after-ages 
known  as  the  University  of  Oxford.  Alfred  brought  Grim- 
bald  and  other  doctors  to  Oxford ;  but  a  division  arose  be- 
tween  these  new  teachers  and  the  ancient  doctors,  which  the 
king  had  much  difficulty  in  terminating. 

He  was  more  than  twelve  years  old  before  he  learned  to 
read,  and  had  not  leisure,  for  many  years,  to  apply  himself  to 
study.  When  peace  was  restored,  he  devoted  himself,  with 
the  aid  of  learned  men,  to  translate  such  books  into  English  as 
he  judged  would  be  most  useful  to  the  people :  amongst  others, 
the  Psalms  of  David,  St.  Gregory's  Pastoral  and  Dialogues, 
the  histories  of  Orosius  and  Bede,  and  the  Consolations  of 
Boetius.  In  the  preface  to  the  Pastoral  he  says,  that  in  his 
time  but  few  of  the  English  at  this  side  of  the  Humber  un- 
derstood  their  commonest  prayers,  or  could  translate  any 
Latin  writing  into  English.  He  did  not  recollect  to  have 
met  any  one  south  of  the  Thames  who  could  do  so  when  he  be- 
gan to  reign,  though  at  the  time  he  was  writing  there  were 
many  persons  who  were  able  to  teach.  "  I  remember,"  he 
says,  "  before  these  last  ravages  (of  the  Danes,)  I  have 
seen  the  churches  of  England  full  of  ornaments  and  books ; 
but  the  clergy  did  not  derive  much  benefit  from  them,  be- 
cause  they  did  not  understand  them ;  and  our  ancestors  did 
not  translate  them  into  the  vernacular  tongue,  because  they 


A.D.  680-1054.  KILUS  Of  CALABRIA.  97 

did  not  imagine  that  we  should  ever  fall  into  such  ignorance." 
He  therefore  thought  it  very  advisable  to  translate  the  most 
necessary  books  into  English ;  and  that  all  the  English  youth, 
especially  the  free-born,  should  learn  to  read.* 

This  excellent  prince  was  grievously  afflicted  with  bodily 
pains  all  his  life  ;  but  his  piety  never  failed.  He  would  par- 
don a  heathen  any  crime  that  he  might  have  committed,  on 
condition  of  his  becoming  a  .Christian.  All  the  leisure  h© 
had  from  war  and  business  was  devoted  to  study,  and  to  in- 
quiring how  he  might  do  good  to  others,  and  improve  him- 
self in  virtue.     He  died  in  peace,  a.d.  901. 

I  now  turn  to  an  instance  of  piety  in  a  very  different 
sphere  of  life.  St.  Nilus  was  born  in  Calabria,  of  Greek 
parentage,  in  the  tenth  century.  His  natural  abilities  were 
carefully  cultivated  by  study  in  his  youth.  He  read  holy 
Scripture  continually,  and  delighted  in  the  lives  of  the  fa- 
thers :  but  when  he  was  in  the  flower  of  his  youth  he  fell  in- 
to sins,  from  which  he  was  after  a  time  delivered  by  the  grace 
of  God  operating  on  his  conscience  during  his  recovery  from 
a  violent  fever.  He  then  resolved  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
the  worship  and  service  of  God,  and  to  all  the  exercises  of 
a  religious  life ;  and  with  this  mind  he  entered  a  monastery 
in  Calabria,  where  he  was  joyfully  received ;  but  wishing 
for  more  quiet  than  he  found  there,  he  retired  to  a  cavern 
near  at  hand,  where  he  spent  his  days  between  prayer,  copy- 
ing psalters  and  other  religious  books,  singing  the  psalms, 
and  studying  holy  Scripture  and  the  fathers.  In  the  evening 
he  left  his  cell  to  walk  abroad  and  refresh  himself,  and  medi- 
tate on  some  passages  of  the  fathers,  without  ever  forgetting 
God,  whom  he  contemplated  in  all  the  works  of  creation. 
A-fter  sun-set  he  took  his  frugal  meal,  and  in  the  night  he  slept 
but  for  a  short  time,  and  then  recited  the  psalms  till  day-light. 
His  fasts  were  frequent  and  long. 

One  of  the  brethren,  having  obtained  his  permission  to  live 

•  [See  Sir  Francis  Palgrave's  admirable  little  work  on  the  history  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons. — Am.  Ed.] 

9 


ii  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XllI 

along  with  him,  said  to  him,  "  My  father,  I  have  three  pieces 
of  silver  ;  what  wilt  thou  that  I  should  do  with  them  ?"  Ni- 
lus  replied,  •'  Give  them  to  the  poor,  and  keep  only  your  psal- 
ter." He  did  so ;  but  some  time  after,  being  wearied  of  such 
a  life,  he  sought  to  quarrel  with  Nilus,  and  demanded  the 
money  which  he  had  given  to  the  poor.  "  My  brother," 
said  the  holy  man,  "  write  on  a  piece  of  paper  that  I  shall 
receive  the  reward  of  it  in  heaven,  and  place  it  on  the  altar." 
Then  he  departed,  borrowed  the  money,  which  he  gave  to 
the  man,  and  in  twelve  days  copied  three  psalters,  with 
which  he  paid  his  debt.  Nilus  afterwards  refused  to  be  made 
abbot  of  the  neighbouring  convent.  One  of  the  principal  in- 
habitants of  that  part  of  the  country  having  resolved  to  live 
a  religious  life,  and  desiring  to  place  himself  under  his  di- 
rection, and  imitate  his  mode  of  living,  Nilus  dissuaded  him 
from  it,  saying,  "  My  brother,  it  is  not  for  our  virtue  that 
we  live  in  this  desert,  but  it  is  because  we  cannot  bear  the 
rule  of  common  life,  that  we  have  separated  ourselves  from 
men,  like  lepers.  You  do  well  to  seek  your  salvation.  Go 
to  some  community  where  you  will  find  repose  of  body  and 
mind."  As  the  Saracens  were  making  many  inroads  into  that 
country,  Nilus  departed  to  another  place,  where  several  dis- 
ciples joined  him,  and  a  monastery  was  formed.  Some 
brethren  in  the  neighbourhood  spoke  evil  of  him  as  a  hypo- 
crite  and  impostor,  but  he  returned  it  only  by  giving  them  bless- 
ings and  praise  ;  and  one  day,  when  they  had  extremely  mal- 
treated him,  he  came  to- them  as  they  were  eating,  placed 
himself  on  his  knees,  and  asked  their  pardon.  By  this  con- 
duct he  entirely  subdued  them,  and  gained  their  friendship. 
He  would  not  allow  any  member  of  his  c^ommunity  to  possess 
any  thing  but  what  was  barely  necessary,  saying  that  any 
thing  more  was  avarice.  When  the  society  increased,  he 
would  never  assume  the  title  of  abbot  or  hegumenus.  One 
day,  the  metropolitan  of  Calabria,  accompanied  by  severajf 
great  men,  magistrates,  clergy,  and  a  number  of  people^ 
came  to  visit  him  out  of  curiosity.     He  caused  one  of  them 


A.D.  680-1054.  NILTTS.  99 

to  read  part  of  a  book  in  which  it  was  written,  "  that  of  ten 
thousand  souls,  scarcely  one  at  the  present  time  departs  into 
the  angel's  hands."  Many  began  to  say,  "  God  forbid  :  this 
is  heresy.  Where  then  is  the  use  of  baptism,  adoring  the 
cross  of  Christ,  receiving  the  communion,  and  bearing  the 
name  of  Christians  ?"  Nilus  replied,  "  What  if  I  show  you 
that  the  fathers,  St.  Paul,  and  the  Gospel,  say  the  same  thing  ? 
God  is  under  no  obligation  to  you  for  what  you  speak  of. 
You  would  not  dare  to  profess  any  heresy :  the  people  would 
stone  you.  But  know  ye,  that  if  ye  be  not  virtuous,  yea,  ex- 
ceedingly virtuous,  ye  shall  not  escape  eternal  punishment." 
Being  asked  of  what  tree  Adam  eat  in  Paradise,  he  said,  "  How 
should  we  speak  of  what  Scripture  has  not  revealed  to  us  ? 
Instead  of  thinking  how  ye  were  created  ;  how  ye  were 
placed  in  Paradise  ;  of  the  commandments  ye  have  received, 
and  have  not  kept ;  of  what  has  driven  you  from  Paradise, 
and  how  ye  may  enter  it  again ;  instead  of  all  this,  ye  in- 
quire the  name  of  a  tree !"  Many  great  officers  offerea 
bim  large  sums  of  money  for  the  benefit  of  his  community  ; 
but  he  said  to  them,  "  My  brethren  will  be  happy,  according 
to  the  psalm,  if  they  live  of  the  labour  of  their  hands;  and 
the  poor  will  cry  against  you  for  retaining  their  goods." 

When  the  archbishop  of  Rossano  died,  the  magistrates 
and  principal  clergy  came  to  seek  for  St.  Nilus,  to  offer  him 
the  see  ;  but,  having  heard  of  their  intentions,  he  retired  in- 
to the  recesses  of  the  mountains,  and  could  not  be  found  ;  so 
that  they  were  obliged  to  elect  another  person  to  that  see. 
The  incursions  of  the  Saracens  at  length  became  so  fre- 
quent, that  Nilus  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Mount  Casino,  which  St.  Benedict  had  founded.  On 
his  way  thither,  he  passed  through  Capua,  and  his  fame  was 
so  great,  that  he  was  offered  the  bishopric  of  that  city.  Ni 
lus  lived  near  Mount  Casino  for  fifteen  years  with  his  com- 
munity. In  997,  when  very  aged,  he  went  to  Rome  to  be- 
seech the  emperor  and  the  pope  to  have  mercy  on  the  anti- 
pope  Philagathus,  whom  he  had  known  formerly.     The  em* 


100  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIV. 

peror  and  Pope  Gregory,  having  heard  of  his  arrival,  went 
to  meet  him,  and  each  taking  him  by  a  hand,  led  him  to  the 
patriarchal  palace,  and  seated  him  between  them,  each  kiss- 
ing his  hand.  The  old  man  groaned  at  receiving  these 
honours ;  yet  he  endured  them,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
what  he  desired.  He  then  said  to  them,  "Spare  me,  for  the 
sake  of  God.  I  am  the  greatest  sinner  of  all  men ;  an  old 
man,  half  dead,  and  unworthy  of  these  honours :  it  is  rather 
my  part  to  prostrate  myself  before  you,  and  to  honour  your 
supreme  dignities." 

Finding  at  length  that  his  community  at  Valdeluce  had 
become  seriously  relaxed  in  discipline  by  the  wealth,  num- 
bers, and  renown,  which  his  sanctity  had  given  to  it,  he  de- 
parted and  went  to  a  place  near  Gaeta.  "  The  monks  of 
these  times,"  he  said,  "do  not  employ  their  leisure  in  prayer, 
meditation,  and  reading  of  Scripture,  but  in  vain  discourse, 
evil  thoughts,  and  useless  curiosity.  These  and  many  other 
evils  are  removed  by  labour,  which  distracts  the  attention 
from  them ;  and  there  is  nothing  equal  to  eating  our  bread 
in  the  sweat  of  our  countenance." 

The  princess  of  Gaeta  came  to  visit  him,  out  of  reverence 
for  his  piety,  and  he  discoursed  to  her  on  purity,  almsgiving, 
and  the  fear  of  God.  It  was  always  unpleasant  to  him  to 
meet  the  great :  he  avoided  it  carefully,  as  a  source  of  vani- 
ty  and  danger,  and  had  no  intercourse  with  them  even  by 
letter,  except  to  assist  them  in  their  necessities  and  their 
misfortunes.  Nilus  died  soon  after,  in  1002,  aged  ninety-five. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ON  THE  ABUSES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THIS    PERIOD. 

A.D.  680-1054. 

The  ignorance  caused  by  the  disorganised  condition  of 
society  during  these  ages  could  not  fail  to  produce  many  ir- 


A.JD.  680-1054.  MONASTIC  ABUSES.  101 

regularities,  abuses  and  superstitions.  1  have  already  aliud- 
ed  to  the  mischiefs  resulting  from  the  use  of  images,  which 
were  of  the  most  afflicting  character.  The  invocation  of 
saints  was  also  frequent,  though  we  do  not  find  that  direct 
prayers  were,  as  yet,  addressed  to  them,  or  their  aid  sought, 
except  with  a  desire  for  their  prayers  to  God.  The  litanies 
of  the  western  Churches  began  to  include  such  invocations  ; 
but  they  did  not  find  their  way  into  the  usual  services  of  the 
Church.  We  have  seen,  in  the  last  chapter,  the  lamentable 
want  of  information  on  religion  which  existed  in  some  coun- 
tries, where  the  Scriptures  and  the  offices  of  religion  were 
unintelligible  even  to  the  clergy.  It  was  a  mistaken  rever- 
ence for  antiquity  which  led  Augustine  and  Boniface  to  em- 
ploy the  ancient  Latin  liturgies  in  the  Churches  which  they 
founded  amongst  the  heathen.  They  had  not  calculated 
that  the  knowledge  of  that  language  would  be  so  limited,  or 
that  the  people  would  be  so  badly  instructed.  Succeeding 
generations  wanted  ability  or  courage  to  correct  a  mistake 
sanctioned  by  such  respectable  authority.  Still  some  means 
of  instruction  existed,  though  these  were  not  universally 
found.  Such  were  the  sermons  of  the  bishops  and  presby- 
ters ;  the  exhortations  of  the  monks ;  the  discipline  of  pen- 
ance,  which  still  continued,  though  much  impaired  ;  the  sys- 
tem of  catechising  the  young ;  and  the  instruction  which  was 
conveyed  by  parents  and  godfathers,  who  were  also  reminded 
of  their  duties.  And  if,  as  we  have  reason  to  believe,  a 
large  portion  of  the  community  were  accustomed  to  receive 
the  holy  eucharist  three  times  a  year,  we  may  trust  that  the 
state  of  religion  was  in  those  ages  not  so  bad  as  it  has  been 
sometimes  represented  ;  and  the  present  age,  with  all  its  ad- 
vantages  of  civilization,  peace,  and  education,  would  per- 
haps scarcely  be  able  to  prove  its  greater  attention  to  known 
duties,  or  its  more  conscientious  obedience  to  the  impulse 
of  conscience.  As  time  advanced,  indeed,  we  see  the  words 
of  our  Lord  verified.  The  tares  began  to  grow  thickly  in 
the  field  of  the  Church,  and  the  wheat  was  oppressed  by  their 

0* 


102  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIV. 

multitude.  The  pure  gold  of  the  early  times,  tried  seven 
times  in  the  fire,  was  now  mingled  with  the  alloy  of  this 
earth ;  and  the  human  heart  betrayed  daily  its  tendency  to 
fall  away  from  the  service  of  its  Creator.  The  very  chosen 
resorts  of  religious  zeal  and  self-denying  piety  exemplified 
most  lamentably  this  tendency  to  decay.  The  way  of  life 
in  which  an  Antony  and  a  Benedict  had  shown  such  eminent 
virtues  was  now  filled  with  lukewarm  professors.  The  sim- 
ple piety,  the  poverty,  and  the  industry  of  St.  Benedict's 
rule,  gradually  gave  way  before  the  influence  of  too  ample 
endowments.  Abuses  of  all  kinds  arose.  The  cupidity  of 
barbarians  was  attracted  by  the  wealth  of  monasteries  and 
the  splendour  of  their  ornaments.  Powerful  barons  usurped 
their  territories  or  intruded  into  their  precincts,  spreading 
disorder  and  licentiousness  amongst  those  former  seats 
of  religion  and  learning.  When  Odo,  about  920,  was  de- 
sirous to  devote  himself  to  the  monastic  life,  he  went  him- 
self  or  sent  messengers  to  all  the  celebrated  monasteries  of 
France  ;  but  he  could  not  find  a  single  house  in  which  sufli- 
cent  regularity  and  order  were  observed.  He  then  founded 
the  monastery  and  order  of  Clugny,  in  which  the  strictness 
of  ancient  discipline  was  revived.  Indeed,  the  observance 
of  St.  Benedict's  rule  had,  even  in  the  preceding  century, 
become  so  much  relaxed,  that  Benedict  of  Anianum  was 
employed  to  reform  a  number  of  monasteries  in  France  and 
Italy.- 

The  vast  possessions  which  were  bestowed  on  the  Church 
by  the  sovereigns  of  the  West,  and  which  were  held  by  feu- 
dal tenure,  obliged  bishops  and  abbots  to  attend  the  courts  of 
princes,  to  absent  themselves  from  their  dioceses,  and 
to  mingle  in  scenes  of  war  and  civil  commotion,  which 
were  little  consistent  with  their  sacred  characters.  Hence 
too  arose  that  mutual  interference  of  Church  and  State,  of 
which  these  ages  furnished  several  examples.  Princes  seiz- 
ed on  the  temporalities  of  churches,  kept  them  vacant 
to  enjoy  their  revenues,  or  insisted  on  the  appointment  of 


A.D.  680-1054.  FORGED  CREDENTIALS.  103 

bishops  who  were  altogether  unworthy.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  bishops  began  to  assume  temporal  authority.*  The 
council  of  Toledo  deposed  Wamba,  king  of  the  «c), 

Visigoths,  because,   as  they  pretended,    he  had 
taken  the  monastic  habit.     The  emperor  Louis  coo 

le  Debonnaire  was  deposed,  and  restored  again 
by  councils  of  bishops.  When  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  had 
obtained  from  Pepin,  Charlemagne,  and  their  successors,  con- 
siderable grants  of  territory  in  Italy,  those  powerful  prelates 
assumed  a  still  loftier  tone  of  authority,  and  began  to  inter- 
fere in  the  disputes  and  other  affairs  of  princes.  Thus  Ad- 
rian II.  forbade  the  emperor  Charles  the  Bald  to  possess 
himself  of  the  dominions  of  king  Lothaire,  under  pain  of 
excommunication,  but  in  this  he  was  resisted  by  the  bishops 
of  France ;  and  when  Gregory  IV.,  about  830,  had  taken  part 
with  Lothaire  against  his  father  the  emperor  Louis,  and 
threatened  to  excommunicate  the  latter,  the  bishops  of 
France  informed  that  prelate,  that  if  he  came  to  excommu- 
nicate the  emperor,  he  should  return  home  excommunicated 
himself. 

Another  evil  in  these  times  was  the  facility  with  which  ex- 
communications were  denounced.  A  sentence,  which  ought 
only  to  be  passed  on  those  who  have  been  guilty  of  most  se- 
rious offences  against  God  or  their  brethren,  was*  used  on 
many  trifling  and  unworthy  occasions ;  and  hence  we  need 
not  wonder  at  the  complaints  frequently  made  in  those  times, 
that  excommunication  was  disregarded. 

The  power  of  the  Roman  see  in  the  western  Church  was 
greatly  augmented  in  the  ninth  century,  by  the  fabrication 
of  a  large  body  of  decretal  epistles  or  ecclesiastical  laws, 
which  purported  to  have  been  written  by  the  popes  during  the 

*  [It  was  clearly  through  these  usurpations  of  the  bishops  that  the  unho- 
ly tyranny  of  Rome  grew  into  being.  The  episcopal  claims  were  gradual- 
ly concentered  in  the  one  apostolical  see  of  the  West ;  and  all  the  power 
that  the  weakness  and  wickedness  of  temporal  princes  had  thrown  into 
the  hands  of  the  spiritual  rulers,  was  thus  drawn  to  a  single  focus. — 
Am  Ed.] 


104  ECCLESIASTICA  L  niSTOEY.  CH.  rv  . 

first  three  centuries,  and  in  which  the  judgment  of  all  bish- 
ops, the  holding  of  all  councils,  and  a  right  to  hear  appeals 
from  all  ecclesiastical  judgments,  were  claimed  for  the  Ro- 
man pontiffs.  These  epistles,  which  had  been  forged  in  the 
preceding  century,  and  which  are  now  acknowledged  by  the 
most  learned  Romanists  to  be  mere  fabrications,  exagrcje- 
rated  to  the  highest  degree  the  powers  and  privileges  of  the 
popes ;  and  the  ignorance  of  the  ninth  century  prevented  any 
discovery  of  their  falsehood.  The  bishops  of  Rome  assert- 
^  ed  their  genuineness,  and  carried  their  principles 

A.D.  862.  ^^^^  practice ;  though  the  bishops,  especially 
those  of  France,  offered  much  opposition.  Thus 
the  liberties  of  Churches  were  gradually  invaded,  while 
their  discipline  was  injured  by  the  obstacles  thrown  in  the 
way  of  assembling  synods  and  condemning  offenders,  and 
by  the  facility  of  appeals  to  a  foreign  and  too  favourable 
tribunal. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


ON  THE  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  EASTERN  AND  WESTERN  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  680-1054. 

During  the  period  now  before  us  the  rival  Churches  of 
Rome  and  Constantinople  had  several  disputes.  When  the 
controversy  about  images  broke  out  in  the  eighth  century, 
726  TS'^  Gregory  II.  and  Gregory  III.  of  Rome, 
excommunicated  the  emperors  of  the  East, 
and  forbade  the  payment  of  tribute  to  them,  in  consequence 
of  their  opposition  to  images.  The  emperors  in  return  con- 
fiscated the  possessions  of  the  Roman  see  in  their  dominions, 
and  withdrawing  the  various  Churches  of  Illyricum,  Mace- 
donia, Greece,  as  well  as  those  of  Sicily,  Apulia,  and  Cala- 
bria, from  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome,  subjected  them  to  the 


A.D.  880-1054.        DIVISIONS  OF  THE  CIIITRCHES.  105 

see  of  Constantinople.  The  three  former  provinces  had  been 
under  the  see  of  Rome  for  about  350  years  ;  the  latter  for 
a  much  longer  time :  however,  the  eastern  Church  offered 
no  objection  to  this  arrangement,  nor  was  communion  inter- 
rupted between  the  East  and  West  on  this  account,  though 
the  bishops  of  Rome  made  frequent  efforts  to  obtain  a  resto- 
ration of  their  authority.  Their  requests  were  fruitless,  as 
long  as  they  were  addressed  to  the  eastern  emperors  or 
Churches ;  but  when  the  Normans  subdued  Sicily  and  Na- 
ples, in  the  eleventh  century,  those  provinces,  after  an  inter- 
val of  three  centuries,  again  became  subject  ,  ^q^ 
to  the  Roman  jurisdiction.  During  the  disputes 
on  image-worship,  the  Roman  see  was  for  some  time  sepa- 
rated from  the  communion  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople ; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  western  Church  generally  re- 
garded either  party  as  heretical,  or  refused  communion  with 
them. 

In  the  ninth  century  a  dispute  arose  between  the  bishops 
of  Rome  and  Constantinople  about  the  province  of  Bulgaria, 
which  each  claimed.  This  was  heightened  by  the  contro- 
versy in  the  case  of  Photius,  who  had  been  made  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  when  Ignatius,  the  last  patriarch,  was  expelled 
from  his  see  by  the  emperor,  and  deposed  by  a  ^^^ 

synod  of  318  bishops,  by  whom  Photius  was  ac- 
knowledged patriarch.     The  Roman  see  took  part  with  Igna- 
tius, and   deposed  Photius,  who  retaliated  by  deposing  the 
bishop  of  Rome  :  but  after  a  time  he  was  expelled,  and  Ig- 
natius   restored  by  another  emperor.     The  majority  of  the 
eastern  Church,   however,  adhered  to   Photius  ;  and  on  the 
death  of  his  rival   Tgnatius,  he  was  again  placed  in  his  see 
by  a  synod  of  383  bishops,  with  the  approbation      ^  ^   g-,g 
of  pope  John  VIII.     The  latter  consented  to  his 
restoration,  on  condition  that  Bulgaria  should  be  transferred 
to  the  Roman  jurisdiction ;  but  this  transfer  was  opposed  by 
Photius  and  his  successors ;  and  though  he  became,  in  con- 
sequence, very  obnoxious  to  the  popes,  who  withdrew  their 


106  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XVI. 

communion  from  him,  the  communion  of  the  universal 
Church  was  not  seriously  affected,  and  the  two  rival  Churches 
afterwards  remained  in  communion  till  1054. 

In  this  year,  however,  a  division  began  between  the 
eastern  and  western  Churches,  which  has  never  yet  been  en- 
tirely healed.  For  when  Cerularius,  bishop  of  Constantino- 
ple, wrote  to  the  bishop  of  Trani,  in  Italy,  condemning 
several  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  shut  up  the  Latin  churches  and  monasteries  at  Constan- 
tinople, the  legate  of  the  Roman  see,  Cardinal  Humbert, 
insisted  on  his  implicit  submission  to  the  pope ;  and,  on  his 
refusal,  left  an  excommunication  on  the  altar  of  his  patriar- 
chal church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  And  as  the 
eastern  Churches  adhered  to  Cerularius,  and  the  western  to 
the  Roman  see,  they  gradually  became  estranged  from  each 
other,  though  for  many  ages  some  communion  still  existed 
between  them. 

I  have  thus  endeavoured  to  trace  briefly  the  principal  fea- 
tures  in  ecclesiastical  history  from  the  beginning  to  the  divi- 
sion of  the  eastern  and  western  Churches,  and  to  show  that 
in  every  age  the  Church  of  God  still  existed,  notwithstanding 
all  the  temptations  of  the  devil,  the  world,  and  the  flesh. 
It  will  next  be  my  endeavour  to  carry  on  the  same  plan  from 
the  division  of  the  East  and  West  to  the  Reformation. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


ON  THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANHY. 

A.D.  1054-1517. 

The  period  under  consideration  is  chiefly  remarkable  as 
exhibiting  the  progress  of  the  division  between  the  eastern 
and  western  Churches,  and  the  rise  and  increase  of  the  pro- 
digious spiritual  and  temporal  power  of  the  popes.  It  was 
the  unreasonable  claims  of  this  power  which  separated  the 


A.D.  1054-1517.  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  10/ 

eastern  from  the  western  Church,  and  which  still  continues 
to  be  the  great  obstacle  to  their  re-union.  The  spirit  of 
worldliness,  of  craft,  cruelty,  and  avarice,  which  so  often 
disgraced  professing  Christians,  and  even  ministers  of  Christ, 
in  these  ages,  was  but  too  faithfully  copied  from  the  example 
of  the  pretended  heads  of  the  universal  Church ;  while  the 
ancient  laws  and  liberties  of  churches,  the  rights  of  kings, 
and  the  sound  discipline  of  the  Church,  were  without  scruj  ie 
invaded  and  subverted  by  these  imperious  pontiffs.  But  we 
should  remember  that  the  visible  Church  was  now  becoming 
co-extensive  with  the  world,  and  therefore  that  "  it  was  im- 
possible but  that  offences  should  come."  The  good  seed 
was  now  mingled  thickly  with  tares,  and  the  love  of  many 
waxed  faint :  but  still  there  was  a  remnant  left ;  still  the 
Church,  however  afflicted,  might  point  to  new  evangelists 
and  saints,  and  behold  the  verification  of  our  Saviour's 
promises. 

The  great  work  of  evangelising  the  heathen  was  continu- 
<x\\y  proceeding,  and  the  zeal  and  piety  of  the  early  mission- 
aries were  occasionally  revived.  In  1124,  Boleslaus,  duke 
of  Poland,  having  subjugated  the  duchy  of  Pomerania,  and 
wishing  to  introduce  Christianity  into  that  country,  invited 
St.  Otto,  bishop  of  Bamberg,  to  preach  the  Gospel  there, 
informing  him  that  the  people  had  consented  to  be  baptised, 
and  that  he  should  be  aided  and  assisted  in  every  way  by  the 
sovereign  power.  St.  Otto,  having  learned  that  the  Pome- 
ranians were  wealthy  and  despised  poverty,  went  into  that 
country  with  a  considerable  train,  and  with  every  thing  that 
could  convince  the  natives  that  he  came  not  to  derive  any 
pecuniary  advantage,  but  solely  to  win  their  souls.  At  the 
town  of  Pirits,  where  they  first  proceeded,  about  four  thou- 
sand men  were  assembled  from  all  parts  to  keep  the  feast  of 
one  of  their  idols.  The  principal  inhabitants  of  the  place 
were  informed  by  one  of  the  duke's  officers  of  the  approach 
of  the  bishop,  and  of  the  commands  of  their  sovereign,  that  he 
should  be  received  and  heard  with  respect.     The  officer  ad 


105  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XVI 

ded,  ''that  this  prelate  was  a  great  and  wealthy  man  in  his 
own  country ;  that  he  sought  none  of  their  goods,  but  only 
their  salvation  ;  that  they  ought  to  remember  their  promise  to 
become  Christians,  and  the  sufferings  they  had  experienced  in 
war,  and  not  to  provoke  again  the  anger  of  God."  After  some 
demur,  the  pagans,  finding  that  St.  Otto  was  close  at  hruid. 
agreed  to  hear  him  ;  and  the  bishop  then  came  with  all  his 
company  and  encamped  outside  the  town,  where  the  barbari- 
ans ran  in  great  numbers  to  behold  and  assist  them.  St.  Otto 
then  ascended  an  elevated  place,  adorned  with  all  his  epis- 
copal vestments,  and  by  means  of  an  interpreter  addressed 
the  people,  who  were  very  eager  to  hear  him. 

"  May  ye  be  blessed  of  God,"  he  said,  "  for  the  good  recep- 
tion you  have  given  to  us.  You  already  know,  perhaps,  the 
cause  which  has  brought  us  so  far.  It  is  your  salvation  and 
your  happiness  ;  for  you  v/ill  be  happy  for  ever,  if  you  will 
acknowledge  your  Creator  and  serve  him."  While  he  thus 
simply  exhorted  the  people,  they  all  declared  that  they  would 
receive  his  instructions.  He  spent  seven  days  in  instructing 
them  carefully,  with  the  assistance  of  his  priests  and  clergy. 
Then  he  ordered  them  to  fast  three  days,  to  batlie  themselves, 
and  clothe  themselves  with  white  garments,  to  be  ready  for 
baptism.  He  then  prepared  three  baptisteries,  for  the  men, 
women,  and  children,  respectively.  These  baptisteries 
were  great  wooden  vessels  sunk  in  the  earth  and  filled  with 
water.  They  were  surrounded  by  curtains,  and  at  the  part 
of  each  where  the  priest  stood,  was  another  curtain.  When 
any  one  was  to  be  baptised,  he  came  accompanied  by  his 
godfather,  to  whom,  on  entering  tlie  baptistery,  he  gave  his 
garment,  and  who  held  it  before  his  face  until  the  ceremony 
was  concluded.  The  priest,  as  soon  as  he  observed  any  one 
in  the  water,  drew  aside  the  curtain  a  little,  and  baptised 
him,  immersing  his  head  three  times  in  the  water.  He  then 
anointed  him  with  chrism,  gave  him  a  white  garment,  and 
dismissed  him.     The  godfather  received  him,  covered  him 


A.D.   1054-1517.  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  109 

with  his  garment,    and  led  liim  away.     In    winter,  baptism 
was  administered  with  warm  water,  in  places  well  heated. 

Otto  and  iiis  companions  remained  three  weeks  at  Pirits, 
instructing  the  converts  in  the  duties  of  religion,  the  observ- 
ance  of  Sundays  and  holy  days ;  exhorting  them  to  attend 
the  celebration  of  the  eucharist,  and  to  communicate  at  least 
three  or  four  times  in  the  year.  He  explained  to  them  the 
sacraments,  desired  that  their  children  should  be  brought  for 
baptism  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  exhorted  them  to  give 
some  of  their  children  to  be  educated  as  clergy,  and  left  them 
a  priest  to  administer  the  sacraments,  whom  these  people,  to 
the  number  of  seven  thousand,  received  with  the  greatest 
joy  and  devotion. 

In  the  next  town  he  remained  six  weeks,  and  baptised  so 
great  a  multitude,  that  his  alb  was  often  wet  with  perspira- 
tion even  to  the  waist.  At  another  town  he  was  less  fortu- 
nate. The  pagans  fell  with  fury  on  him  and  his  attendants. 
St.  Otto  was  with  difficulty  saved,  after  having  received  many 
blows  and  fallen  in  the  mud.  At  Stetten,  the  people  de- 
clared at  first  that  they  were  satisfied  with  their  old  religion, 
and  refused  to  become  Christians  ;  but  they  afterwards  gave 
hopes  that  if  the  duke  would  remit  certain  taxes,  they  might 
be  induced  to  adopt  Christianity.  While  the  negotiation  was 
going  on,  the  bishop  and  priests,  arrayed  in  their  vestments, 
and  bearing  a  cross,  preached  twice  a  week  in  the  market- 
place,  that  is,  on  market-days.  The  novelty  attracted  many 
hearers,  and  several  were  converted.  On  the  return  of  their 
messengers  with  a  favourable  answer  from  the  duke,  the  in- 
habitants resolved  to  receive  the  Gospel.  Otto  exhorted  them 
to  destroy  their  idols  ;  but  as  they  feared  to  do  so,  he  him- 
self  led  the  way  with  his  clergy,  and  struck  the  idols  down, 
when  the  people,  seeing  that  their  gods  could  not  avenge 
themselves,  completed  the  work  of  destruction.  Thus  he 
went  throughout  Pomerania,  converting  multitudes  of  the 
people,  and  at  length  returned  to  Bamberg,  after  a  year's 
absence.     In  a  few  years  he  again  visited  Pomerania,  many 

10 


110  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XVI. 

of  the  people  haviog  relapsed  into  paganism ;  but  as  he 
approached  Stettin,  the  clergy  who  accompanied  him,  dread- 
ing the  barbarity  of  the  people,  remonstrated  with  him,  and 
endeavoured  to  dissuade  him  from  his  journey.  He  said 
to  them,  "  I  would  fain  exhort  you  to  martyrdom,  but  I  shall 
not  constrain  any  one.  If  you  will  not  aid  me,  at  least  do 
not  hinder  me  ;  but  leave  to  me  the  same  liberty  which  I  do  to 
you."  Thus  saying,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  chamber,  and 
remained  in  prayer  till  the  evening.  But  in  the  night  he 
placed  on  his  shoulders  a  bag  containing  his  vestments  and 
the  vessels  of  the  altar,  and  privately  left  the  place,  taking 
the  road  to  Stettin,  and  chanting  the  nocturnal  service  as  he 
went.  Early  in  the  morning,  the  clergy  found  him,  after  an 
anxious  search,  as  he  was  entering  a  boat ;  and  casting  them- 
selves at  his  feet,  with  many  tears,  promised  that  they  would 
follow  him  even  to  death.  St.  Otto  succeeded  in  recovering 
the  people  from  their  apostacy,  and  after  many  labours  and 
dangers  returned  at  last  to  Bamberg. 

In  1168,  the  natives  of  the  Isle  of  Rugen,  in  the  Baltic, 
were  converted  to  Christianity ;  the  capital  of  that  island 
having  been  surrendered  to  Waldemar,  king  of  Denmark, 
on  condition  that  the  idol  Suantovit,  and  all  his  treasure, 
should  be  delivered  to  the  king,  and  that  the  people  should 
embrace  the  Christian  religion.  Suantovit,  whom  these  bar- 
barians regarded  as  their  principal  deity,  was  originally  the 
martyr  St.  Vitus.  The  monks  of  Corby,  in  Saxony,  had 
formerly  introduced  Christianity  into  this  island,  and  they 
had  dwelt  so  much  on  the  merits  and  miracles  of  this  saint 
(whose  relics  were  preserved  at  Corby,)  that  the  people, 
after  their  departure,  fell  into  most  dreadful  idolatry,  for- 
got the  true  God,  and  placed  the  martyr  St.  Vitus,  whom 
they  called  Suantovit,  in  his  stead,  and  made  an  idol  of  the 
saint  with  four  heads,  to  which  the  people  offered  human  sa- 
crifices; and  the  idol  priest  had  greater  wealth  and  authority 
than  the  king.  Such  are  the  dangers  which  arise  from  the 
excessive  honours  paid  to  saints  and  images.     The  idol  was 


A.D.   1054-1517.  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  Ill 

dragged  into  the  Danish  camp,  where  it  was  split  to  pieces, 
and  the  wood  was  employed  in  the  camp  kitchens.  The 
idol  temple  was  burnt,  churches  were  built,  and  the  people 
converted  and  baptised  by  the  bishops  of  Roskild  and  Meck- 
'enberg,  who  accompanied  the  king  of  Denmark. 

The  Sclavonians  who  inhabited  the  borders  of  the  Baltic 
sea  were,  in  a  great  measure,  converted  by  the  pious  and  judi- 
cious zeal  of  Vicelin,  bishop  of  Oldenberg.  ^^  1124-1154. 
He  devoted  thirty  years  of  his  life  to  the 
glorious  work  of  an  evangelist  among  the  northern  nations, 
and  few  names  in  these  ages  deserve  more  reverence. 

About  the  same  time,  the  Armenians,  who  had  been  for  a 
long  time  involved  in  the  Eutychian  heresy,  condemned  by 
the  fourth  oecumenical  synod,  were  re-united  for  a  time  to  the 
communion  of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  they  also  received  for  a  short  time  the  do- 
minion of  the-bishop  of  Rome. 

The  conversion  of  the  Maronites,  a  small  nation  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  in  Syria,  took  place  about  1182.  They  had  been 
involved  in  the  Monothelite  heresy  since  the  seventh  century ; 
but  now,  finding  themselves  surrounded  by  the  various  prin- 
cipalities established  by  the  Latins  in  the  time  of  the  cru- 
sades, they  embraced  the  faith,  discipline,  and  obedience  of 
the  pope.  About  this  time,  the  Gospel  was  introduced  into 
Livonia,  a  country  on  the  Baltic,  by  Meinard,  1186 

canon  of  Sigeburg,  who  made  several  voyages 
there  with  the  merchants,  and  gained  many  converts.  Finding 
his  work  prosperous,  he  applied  to  the  archbishop  of  Bremen 
for  additional  authority,  and  was  ordained  bishop,  when  he 
fixed  his  see  at  Riga,  and  converted  great  numbers  of  the 
heathen.  Berno,  bishop  of  Suerin,  who  died  in  1195,  had 
also  baptised  many  of  the  Sclavonians,  abolished  their  idols, 
and  cut  down  their  groves. 

In  1210,  some  Cistertian  monks  preached  the  Gospel  in 
Prussia ;  and  some  years  afterwards,  the  pagans  of  that 
country  having  most    dreadfully  persecuted  the  Christian 


Ilf  BCetSSlA-STICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XT?I 

coBverts,  they  were  subdued  by  Crusaders,  and  by  the 
powerful  order  of  Teutonic  knights,  and  gradually  convert- 
ed  to  Christianity.  In  this  century  also,  the  Blohammedans 
were  deprived  of  their  dominion  in  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
and  Christianity  was  re-established  in  that  country.  They 
had  already  been  despoiled  of  Sicily  by  the  Normans.  In 
1230,  the  king  and  people  of  Courland,  on  the  Baltic  sea, 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Roman  legate  in  Germany,  by  which 
they  undertook  to  receive  the  Gospel.  The  Franciscan  and 
Dominican  friars,  in  the  latter  part  of  this  century,  preached 
in  Tartary  with  considerable  success.  They  were  sent  by 
12Q2  Nicholas  IV.  with  letters  to  the  emperor  of 
Tartary,  and  to  the  Nestorians  ;  and  they  sue 
ceeded  in  erecting  several  Christian  churches  in  China,  which 
was  then  under  the  dominion  of  the  Tartars.  One  of  these 
pious  missionaries,  named  John  a  Monte  Corvino,  translated 
the  Psalms  and  the  New  Testament  into  the  Tartar  lan- 
guage. In  1307,  1311,  and  1338,  Clement  V.  and  Bene- 
dict XII.  sent  several  bishops  into  Tartary  and  China ;  but 
after  that  period  their  missions  seem  to  have  fallen  into  de- 
cay. The  last  country  in  Europe  which  received  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  Lithuania.  Jagello,  duke  of  Lithuania,  was 
still  a  pagan,  when,  on  the  death  of  Louis,  king  of  Poland, 
he  was  named  amongst  the  candidates  for  the  vacant  throne ; 
but  his  infidelity  was  an  invincible  obstacle  to  the  attainment 
of  his  wishes.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  his  conversion  was  sin- 
cere, as  he  persuaded  all  his  subjects  to  embrace  Christianity, 
at  the  same  time  that  he  himself  did,  in  1386. 

The  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in  Africa  and  India  led 
to  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  those  countries.  The  sove- 
reigns of  that  nation  felt  themselves  bound  to  use  all  their 
influence  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  their  do- 
minions  ;  and  the  first  result  was  the  conversion  of  the  king 
and  people  of  Congo  in  Africa,  in  1491.  The  subsequent 
settlement  of  the  Portuguese  in  India  was  distinguished  by 
similar  blessings.  The  conquest  of  South  America  and  of  the 


A»».  1054-1517.      FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH.  113 

West  Indies,  by  the  Spaniards,  was  also  made  the  means  of 
disseminating  the  Christian  faith  through  those  wide  regions, 
though  we  cannot  but  deplore  the  cruelties  which  were  pi*ac- 
tised  in  the  subjugation  of  the  unfortunate  inhabitants  of  those 
countries. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON  THE  FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

A.D.  1054-1517. 

The  belief  of  the  eastern  and  western  branches  of  the 
universal  Church  remained  the  same  in  all  articles  of  faith, 
during  the  period  now  before  us,  as  it  had  been  before  the 
division.  The  Nicene  creed  was  universally  received  as 
the  rule  of  faith.  The  six  holy  oecumenical  synods  were 
still  regarded  with  the  greatest  veneration ;  but  the  decrees 
of  the  Nicene  synod  in  favour  of  images,  which  pretended 
to  be  the  seventh  oecumenical  synod,  were  only  approved  by 
the  eastern  and  by  a  portion  of  the  western  Churches.  The 
principal  point  of  doctrinal  difference  between  the  East  and 
West,  was  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for  the  former 
asserted,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  only, 
while  the  latter  believed  that  He  also  proceeds  from  the  Son. 
However,  as  the  former  allowed  that  the  Holy  Ghost  pro- 
ceeds from  the  Father  hy  the  Son,  the  difference  did  not  seem 
irreconcilable.  The  doctrine  of  purgatory,  which  was  held 
by  the  popes,  and  a  large  party  in  the  West,  as  an  article  of 
faith,  was  another  point  of  dissension  between  them  and  the 
Greek  Church,  by  which  this  doctrine  was  constantly  denied. 
With  the  exception  of  these  points,  there  was  no  difference 
in  matters  of  faith  between  the  East  and  West.  The 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  incarnation,  divinity  of  our  Lord, 
the  atonement,  original  sin,  and  the  need  of  divine  grace  ; 

10* 


114  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XVII. 

the  obligation  of  good  works,  of  repentance,  prayer,  fasting, 
alms-giving,  charity,  and  all  other  Christian  acts  and  habits, 
were  universally  maintained.  The  faith  of  the  western 
Church  is  shown  by  its  condemnation  of  various  heretics, 
such  as  Peter  de  Bruis  and  Arnold  of  Brescia,  who,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  denied  infant  baptism,  and  destroyed 
churches.  The  Albigenses,  who  held  Manichaean  heresies, 
were  condemned  in  several  councils,  especially  the  great 
Lateran  synod,  in  1216,  which,  in  opposition  to  their  errors, 
made  a  definition  of  faith  in  the  Triune  God,  the  only  Prin- 
ciple and  Author  of  all  things  ;  the  authority  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament ;  our  Lord's  incarnation,  suffering,  bodily  ascension 
into  heaven  ;  the  resurrection  of  the  body  at  the  last  day ; 
the  importance  of  the  eucharist,  and  the  real  presence  of 
Christ's  body  and  blood ;  the  necessity  of  baptism,  and  law- 
fulness of  marriage.  The  Manichseans  denied  all  this :  and  the 
decree  furnishes  a  clear  proof  that  the  western  Church  always 
maintained  its  ancient  faith.  During  the  period  now  under  con- 
sideration, all  the  most  eminent  and  learned  theologians  of  the 
western  Church  continued  to  believe  that  man  cannot  merit 
salvation  by  his  own  works,  but  that  he  must  place  his  whole 
trust  and  confidence  in  the  mercy  of  God,  and  the  atone- 
ment, merits,  and  intercession  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
It  has  been  shown  by  a  learned  writer  (Archbishop  Usher,*) 
that  this  truly  Christian  doctrine  was  included  amongst  the 
instructions  and  consolations  which  were  prescribed  for  the 
use  of  persons  ready  to  depart  from  this  life.  Amongst 
other  questions  which  were  to  be  put  to  the  sick  man,  were 
the  following :  "  Dost  thou  believe  to  come  to  glory,  not  by 
thine  own  merits,  but  by  the  virtue  and  merit  of  the  passion 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  V  and,  "  Dost  thou  believe  that 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  did  die  for  our  salvation,  and  that 
none  can  be  saved  by  his  own  merits,  or  by  any  other  means 
but  by  the  merit  of  his  passion  ?"  In  other  copies  of  the 
same  office  for  visiting  the  sick,  the  last  question  is  this : 
'  Usher,  Answer  to  a  Jesuit,  ch.  xii. 


A.D.  1054-1517.        FAITH  OF  THE  CHURCH.  115 

"  Dost  thou  believe  that  thou  canst  not  be  saved  but  by  the 
death  of  Christ  ?"  And  when  the  sick  parson  has  replied  in 
the  affirmative,  he  is  exhorted  in  these  words :  "  Come, 
therefore,  while  thy  soul  remaineth  in  thee,  place  thy  whole 
confidence  in  this  death  alone  ;  have  confidence  in  no  other 
thing  ;  commit  thyself  wholly  to  this  death  ;  with  this  alone 
cover  thyself  wholly  ;  mingle  thyself  entirely  in  it,  fasten 
thyself  in  it,  wrap  thyself  wholly  in  it.  And  if  the  Lord 
will  judge  thee,  say,  Lord,  I  oppose  the  death  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  betwixt  me  and  thy  judgment ;  no  otherwise  do 
I  contend  with  thee.  And  if  he  say  unto  thee,  that  thou  art 
a  sinner,  say,  Lord,  I  put  the  death  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
betwixt  thee  and  my  sins.  If  he  say  unto  thee,  that  thou 
hast  deserved  damnation,  say.  Lord,  I  set  the  death  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  betwixt  me  and  my  bad  merits ;  and  I  of- 
fer his  merit  instead  of  the  merit  which  I  ought  to  have,  but 
yet  have  not.  If  he  say,  that  he  is  angry  with  thee,  say, 
Lord,  I  interpose  the  death  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  betwixt 
me  and  thine  anger." 

Such  was  the  belief  and  such  the  practice  of  the  Latin 
Churches,  in  ages  when  great  corruptions  had  undoubtedly 
become  prevalent ;  and  surely  it  is  impossible  to  trace  such 
sentiments,  without  a  feeling  of  gratitude  to  that  God,  who, 
in  spite  of  so  many  scandals,  so  much  ignorance,  and  such 
heavy  sins,  still  continued  to  fulfil  his  gracious  promises,  and 
to  preserve  always  in  his  Church  those  vital  truths,  which 
constitute  the  only  solid  foundation  for  a  Christian's  hope  of 
salvation.  It  would  be  easy  to  trace  the  same  doctrine  in 
the  writings  of  St.  Bernard,  St.  Anselm,  Petrus  Blesensis, 
and  many  of  the  most  eminent  scholastic  writers  of  the 
middle  ages.  But  at  length  ignorant  and  wicked  men  main- 
tained that  our  ''good  works  are  properly  meritorious,  and 
the  very  cause  of  salvation  ;  so  far  that  God  would  be  unjust, 
if  he  rendered  not  heaven  for  the  same."  These  arrogant 
sentime  ats  were  held  by  some  of  the  Romish  controversialists 


X16  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XVII. 

in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  but  they  had  been  for  some   time 
before  slowly  working  their  way  in  the  Church. 

Tlie  Roman  pontiifs  regarded  their  own  supremacy  over 
the  whole  Church,  by  divine  right,  as  a  prime  article  of 
faith;  and  their  adherents,  the  monks,  friars,  and  school- 
men, maintained  it  so  vigorously,  that  in  this  period  it  came  to 
be  regarded  generally  in  the  western  Church  as  a  matter  of 
faith,  or  at  least  as  a  settled  and  indisputable  point.  On  this 
basis  the  fabric  of  the  papal  power  was  raised  to  a  gigantic 
height.  As  for  the  eastern  Churches,  they  rejected  and  de. 
nied  this  novel  doctrine,  which  was  never  declared  to  be  an 
article  of  faith  by  any  general  synod ;  for  the  synod  of 
1274  Lyons,  in  which  this  doctrine  was  advanced  by 
the  ambassadors  of  the  Greek  emperor,  to 
gratify  the  pope,  and  by  some  Greek  bishops  who  acted  un- 
14SQ  ^®'*  intimidation;  and  the  synod  of  Florence, 
in  which  it  was  forced  on  those  Greek  bishops 
who  were  present,  were  rejected  by  the  eastern  Church. 
The  latter  synod,  indeed,  was  of  doubtful  authority,  even  in 
the  West,  as  it  consisted  only  of  Italian  bishops,  while  the 
rival  synod  of  Basle  was  sitting  at  the  same  time.  The  doc- 
trine,  however,  became  deeply  rooted  throughout  the  western 
or  Latin  Churches. 

The  synod  of  Florence,  just  referred  to,  was  the  first 
synod  which  taught  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  as  an  article  of 
faith.  It  had,  indeed,  been  held  by  the  popes,  and  by  many 
writers  ;  and  it  became  the  popular  doctrine  during  the  period 
under  review  ;  but  it  was  not  decreed  by  any  authority  of  the 
universal,  or  even  the  whole  Latin  Church.  In  the  eastern 
Church  it  was  always  rejected. 

Nearly  the  same  may  be  said  of  transubstantiation  ;  for 
though  the  popular  persuasion,  and  that  of  the  majority  of 
the  schoolmen,  was,  that  after  consecration  the  bread  of  the 
eucharist  no  longer  exists,  there  were  several  learned  men 
during  these  ages  who  held  different  notions,  such  as  Du- 
rand,    and    many   others    mentioned  by   Cardinal    D' A  illy 


A.D.  1054-1517.  FRUITS  OF  FAITH.  117 

The  council  of  Lateran,  indeed,  had  made  use  of      ^  .^^  ^215. 
the  word  "  transubstantiation,"  to  express  the 
change  by  which  the  bread  and  wine  become  the  sacrament 
of  Christ's  body  and  blood  ;  but  this  word  might  be,   and  m 
fact  was,  used  in  many  senses  inconsistent  with  the  Romish 
interpretation  of  it ;  and  the  object  of  the  synod  itself  seems 
to  have  been  merely  to  establish  the  old  doctrine  of  the  pre- 
sence  and  reception  of  Christ's  body  and  blood  in  the  sacra- 
ment,  in  opposition  to  the  Manichsean  errors.     The  eastern 
Church  in  these  ages  knew  nothing  of  transubstantiation. 
Such  in  general  was  the  condition  of  the  Christian  faith  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.     No  article  of  faith  was 
denied  by  the  Church  generally;  the   erroneous  doctrines 
which  existed  were  held  by  a  greater  or  less  number  of  indi- 
viduals,  but  without  any  solemn  decree  or  determination  of 
the  universal  Church.     Errors  not  directly  contrary  to  the 
articles  of  faith  may  occasionally  exist  in  the  Church,  be- 
cause  they  do  not  destroy  its  faith.     Even  the  Roman  Catho- 
lie  theologian  Bossuet  says,  that  the  majority  of  writers  in 
any  age  may  suppose  some  doctrine  to  be  a  matter  of  faith 
which  is  not  really  so  ;  and  other  Roman  theologians  allow, 
that  the  opinion  most  commonly  held   at  any  time  in  the 
Church  may  not  be  true.     The  promises  of  our  Saviour  to  his 
Church  only  extend  to  the  preservation  of  the  articles  of  the 
faith,  all   of  which  were  revealed  by  himself  and  the  apos- 
ties,  and  are  written  in  Holy  Scripture. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON  THE  FRUITS  OF  FAITH. 

A.D.  1054-1517. 


I  HAVE  already  adverted  to  the  pious  labours  of  evan 
gelists  and  missionaries  during  these  ages :  it  now  remains 
to  speak  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  saints  who  adornp<' 


118  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XVIIIs 

the  Church  ;  and  I  shall  commence  with  some  account  of 
St.  Anselm.  He  was  born  in  Piedmont,  of  noble  parents, 
about  A.D.  1033,  and  was  brought  up  by  his  pious  mother  in 
the  ways  of  godliness.  When  he  was  about  fifteen  years  of 
age  he  wished  to  enter  the  monastic  state,  but  was  refused 
by  the  abbot  to  whom  he  applied,  for  fear  of  his  parents' 
displeasure.  During  the  course  of  his  studies  after  this  time, 
he  neglected  to  cultivate  the  spirit  of  religion  in  his  heart ; 
and  having  lost  his  zeal  for  piety,  and  becoming  insensible 
to  the  fatal  tendency  of  vanity  and  worldly  pleasures,  he  be- 
gan to  walk  in  the  broad  way  of  worldliness.  Anselm  in  his 
writings  expresses  the  deepest  sorrow  and  contrition  for  these 
disorders  of  his  early  life,  which  he  never  ceased  most  bit- 
terly to  deplore  to  the  end  of  his  days. 

After  several  years  of  diligent  study  in  France  and  Bur- 
gundy, he  was  attracted  by  the  great  celebrity  of  Lanfranc, 
prior  of  Bee  in  Normandy,  and  afterwards  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  to  place  himself  under  his  tuition.  After  some 
years,  Anselm  reverted  to  his  early  design,  embraced  the 
monastic  state,  and  became  successor  to  Lanfranc's  office 
and  celebrity.  He  applied  himself  most  earnestly  to  every 
part  of  theology  by  the  clear  light  of  Scripture  and  tradition, 
and  acquired  great  fame  by  his  theological  writings,  his 
skill  in  metaphysics,  and  his  ability  in  teaching,  which  at- 
tracted multitudes  of  disciples  from  all  the  adjoining  king, 
doms  to  the  monastery  of  Bee.  In  1078  he  was  elected  ab- 
bot of  Bee  ;  and  as  that  house  possessed  lands  in  England, 
he  was  occasionally  obliged  to  visit  this  country,  where  he 
was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  William  the  Conqueror,  by 
Lanfranc,  now  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  by  many  great 
nobles  in  the  kingdom. 

1089  ^^®  death  of  Lanfranc,    the  possessions 

of  his  see,  like  those  of  several  others,  were 
seized  by  king  William  Rufus,  who  kept  many  of  the  Eng- 
lish bishoprics  vacant  for  years,  and  applied  their  revenues 
to  his  own  use.     At  length,  having  fallen  into  a  dangerous 


A.D.  1054-1517.  ANSELM.  119 

illness,  and  apprehending  that  his  end  was  near,  he  was 
touched  with  compunction  for  his  ill-spent  life,  and  endea- 
voured to  make  amends  for  his  sins,  by  issuing  proclamations 
for  the  release  of  prisoners,  the  discharge  of  debts  due  to 
him,  and  a  general  pardon  ;  and  at  the  same  time  10Q3 

he  nominated  Anselm,  who  happened  to  be  at 
the  court,  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Canterbury,  which,  not- 
withstanding the  strongest  opposition  on  his  part,  Anselm  was 
obliged  at  last  to  accept,  and  he  was  soon  after  consecrated 
with  great  solemnity. 

It  may  be  here  observed,  that  the  pope  had  not  yet  ac- 
quired the  power  of  appointing  to  bishoprics  in  England. 
Anselm  was  elected  and  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury without  any  papal  bulls.  It  was  after  this  that  the  pope 
sent  him  the  pall,  which  constituted  him  vicar  of  the  Roman 
see. 

Anselm  was  soon  exposed  to  the  enmity  of  the  wicked 
prince  who  had,  in  a  moment  of  transitory  remorse,  advanced 
him  to  the  highest  office  in  the  Church  of  England.  His  re- 
fusal to  pay  the  king  an  immense  sum,  which  was  demanded 
for  his  nomination  to  the  archbishopric  ;  and  his  persevering 
solicitations  for  the  removal  of  gross  corruptions  in  ecclesi- 
astical patronage,  and  for  permission  to  hold  synods  with  a 
view  to  enforce  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  excited  the 
wrath  of  the  tyrant,  who  resorted  to  every  possible  expedient 
in  the  hopes  of  depriving  him  of  his  bishopric.  At  length, 
unwilling  to  witness  grievous  oppressions  of  rehgion,  which 
he  was  unable  to  prevent,  Anselm  retired  to  France,  and 
thence -to  Rome,  where  he  earnestly  wished  to  resign  his 
see,  but  was  prevented  by  pope  Urban  II.,  who  enjoined  him 
to  retain  his  office,  and  to  maintain  the  cause  of  the  Church. 
He  was  received  with  great  honours  in   all  parts  of  Italy, 

and  assisted  at  the  council  of  Bari,  where  a  con-       ^  ^    ^  ^^^ 

•         111  A.D.  luyo. 

ference  took  place  between  the  oriental  and  the 

Latin  Churches,  and  where  Anselm  was  commissioned  to 

argue  against  the  doctrine  of  Ihe  Greeks  on  the  procession 


120  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOHY.  CH.   XVIII 

of  the  Holy  Spirit.  After  tlie  death  of  William  Rufus,  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  received  with  much  friendship 
by  king  Henry  I. ;  but  this  harmony  was  ere  long  interrupted 
by-demands  of  homage  and  investiture  on  the  part  of  the  king, 
which  Anselm,  in  accordance  with  certain  principles  lately 
laid  down  by  a  synod  at  Rome,  thought  it  his  duty  to  refuse. 
Notwithstanding  this,  he  opposed  himself  with  all  his  power 
to  an  attempt  made  by  Robert  duke  of  Normandy  to  obtain 
the  crown  of  England  ;  and  Henry  I.  was  much  indebted  to 
him  for  retaining  possession  of  his  throne.  After  many 
other  troubles,  this  venerable  man  died  peaceably  at  Canter- 
bury in  1109. 

St.  Anselm  had  a  most  lively  faith  in  all  the  great  truths 
of  the  Christian  religion.  His  hope  of  heavenly  things  gave 
him  a  great  contempt  for  the  vanities  of  the  world ;  and  he 
might  truly  say,  that  he  was  dead  to  the  world  and  to  all  its 
desires.  By  the  habitual  restraints  he  imposed  on  his  appe- 
tite, he  seemed  to  have  attained  perfect  indifference  to  the 
nourishment  which  he  took.  His  fortitude  was  such,  that 
neither  fear  nor  favour  could  ever  induce  him  to  swerve  from 
the  way  of  justice  and  of  truth.  He  seemed  to  live  not  for 
himself,  but  for  others.  Amidst  all  his  troubles  and  public 
distractions,  prayer  was  his  great  and  continual  resource. 
He  often  retired  in  the  day  to  his  devotions,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  continued  the  whole  night  in  prayer.  An  anecdote 
has  been  preserved,  which  shows  how  continually  his  mind 
was  engaged  on  the  great  and  awful  realities  of  religion. 
One  day  as  he  was  riding,  at  one  of  his  manors,  a  hare, 
pursued  by  the  hounds,  ran  under  his  horse  for  refuge ;  on 
which  he  stopped,  and  the  hounds  stood  at  bay.  The  hunters 
began  to  laugh  at  this  circumstance;  but  Anselm  said, 
weeping,  "  This  hare  reminds  me  of  a  poor  sinner  just  upon 
the  point  of  departing  this  life,  surrounded  by  devils  waiting 
to  carry  away  their  prey."  The  hare  going  off,  he  forbade 
her  to  be  pursued,  and  was  obeyed.  In  this  manner,  every 
circumstance   served  to  raise  his  mind  to  God;  and,  in  th; 


A.D.  1054-1517.  BERNARD.  121 

midst  of  noise  and  tumult  he  enjoyed  all  tliat  tranquijlfty  and 
peace  which  naturally  arose  from  the  continual  contempla- 
tion of  his  God  and  Saviour,  and  which  elevated  him  above 
the  cares  and  anxieties  of  this  life. 

St.  Bernard  was  born  in  France  in  1091,  the  third  of 
six  brothers,  and  was  remarkable  in  his  childhood  for  dili- 
gence in  his  studies,  and  for  tlie  purity  of  his  morals.  When 
he  had  attained  his  twenty-second  year,  finding  himself  sur- 
rounded by  the  temptations  of  the  world,  he  resolved  to  fol- 
low the  example  of  Antony,  and  to  seek  a  retreat  in  the 
newly.founded  monastery  of  Citeaux  ;  and  he  persuaded  his 
five  brothers,  his  uncle,  and  many  other  persons  of  wealth 
and  merit,  to  unite  with  him.  Accompanied  by  thirty  disci- 
ples, he  was  admitted  at  Citeaux,  where  he  sought  to  hide 
himself  from  the  world ;  and  so  entirely  was  he  absorbed  in 
the  contemplation  of  heavenly  things,  that  all  the  ordinary 
affairs  and  objects  of  Rfe  ceased  to  excite  his  attention  or 
curiosity.  His  watchings  and  fastings  brought  on  an  infirm- 
ity of  body,  which  never  left  him.  In  accordance  with  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict,  which  was  here  strictly  observed,  he 
laboured  diligently  with  his  hands,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
was  inwardly  occupied  in  the  worship  of  God.  He  prayed 
and  meditated  on  Scripture,  and  afterwards  said  that  it  was 
chiefly  in  the  woods  and  fields  that  he  had  learned  the  spiritual 
meaning  of  holy  writ.  In  the  intervals  of  labour,  he  was 
always  engaged  in  prayer,  reading,  or  meditation.  He  studied 
Scripture  by  simply  reading  it  regularly  through  many  times; 
and  said  that  there  was  nothing  which  enabled  him  to  under- 
stand it  better  than  its  own  words,  and  that  all  its  truths  had 
more  force  in  the  text  than  in  the  discourses  of  commentators. 
He,  however,  read,  with  humility,  the  expositions  of  the 
fathers,  and  followed  in  their  footsteps. 

After  St.  Bernard  had  been  a  year  at  Citeaux,  he  was  sent, 
by  the  abbot,  to  take  charge  of  the  new  monastery  at  Clair- 
vaux.  The  society  began  in  extreme  poverty.  They  were 
often  obliged  to  make  their  pottage  of  leaves,  and  mingle 

11 


122  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XVIII. 

their  bread  with  millet  and  vetches.  Assistance,  however, 
came  to  them  often  when  it  was  least  expected.  St.  Bernard 
proposed  to  his  disciples  in  this  place  a  piety  so  pure  and  ele- 
vated, that  it  seemed  beyond  them ;  but  his  exalted  senti- 
ments, and  the  strictness  of  his  discipline,  gradually  pro- 
duced a  revival  of  the  ascetic  life  in  all  its  purity.  On  ap- 
proaching Clairvaux  a  different  scene  presented  itself  from 
that  afforded  by  other  monasteries,  which  were  magnificent 
ly  built  and  adorned,  and  exhibited  every  sign  of  opulence. 
The  buildings  here  were  plain  and  poor.  The  valley  was 
filled  with  men,  each  silently  engaged  in  his  appointed  task  ; 
and  nothing  interrupted  the  silence,  but  the  sound  of  labour, 
or  the  praise  of  God  when  the  monks  chanted  their  offices. 
They  lived  on  the  poorest  fare,  and  denied  themselves  all 
earthly  pleasures  and  enjoyments. 

The  fame  of  St.  Bernard  soon  spread  far  and  wide,  and 
men  began  to  resort  to  him ;  but  wherever  he  was,  or  with 
whomsoever  conversing,  he  could  not  refrain  from  preach- 
ing and  speaking  of  the  blessed  truths  of  religion,  and  of  his 
God  and  Saviour.  His  zeal,  th'3  extent  of  his  learning,  the 
acuteness  of  his  intellect,  his  dauntless  courage,  and  a  piety 
which  shed  the  splendour  of  sanctity  over  all  his  great  en- 
dowments, soon  distinguished  him  as  a  man  who  was  calcu- 
lated for  a  wider  sphere  than  the  limits  of  his  cloister  afford- 
ed ;  and  for  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  hfe  (he  died  in  1153,) 
St.  Bernard  was  consulted  by  popes,  emperors,  kings,  and 
bishops.  He  was  engaged  in  most  affairs  of  importance ; 
was  called  to  many  councils ;  subdued  several  heretics  in 
controversy  ;  was  commissioned  to  preach  the  crusade  to  the 
assembled  sovereign  and  nobles  of  France ;  influenced  the 
,-,on  Christian  world  in  favour  of  pope  Iniiocent, 
whose  election  he  supported  against  a  rival  ; 
Tived  to  see  one  of  his  own  monks  placed  on  the  papal  throne  ; 
and  at  his  death  left  a  hundred  and  sixty  monasteries,  who 
regarded  him  as  their  founder  or  their  governor. 

At  Cremona,  in  Italy,  about  this  time,  lived  a  man  named 


A.D.   1054-1517.  RICHARD.  123 

HoMOBONUs,  who  was  a  merchant,  and  remarkable  for  hon- 
esty in  all  his  dealings.  He  was  married :  but  finding  him- 
self more  free  to  follow  his  wishes  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, he  resolved  to  labour  no  more  for  the  wealth  of  this 
world,  but  to  give  himself  up  to  prayer,  watchfulness,  fast- 
ing, and  other  religious  duties.  He  distributed  to  the  poor 
what  he  had  gained  in  traffic,  and  performed  every  office  of 
charLty  both  to  their  souls  and  bodies.  His  wife  reproached 
him  with  his  want  of  care  for  the  things  of  this  life  ;  but  he 
calmly  reminded  her,  that  what  is  given  to  God  is  never  lost. 
He  often  went  at  night  to  pray  in  the  church ;  and  one 
morning  early,  while  the  service  was  proceeding,  he  pros- 
trated himself  on  the  ground,  his  hands  extended  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  and  after  a  time  he  was  found  to  be  dead.  He 
died  in  1197. 

Some  of  the  most  learned  and  pious  of  the  schoolmen 
flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Amongst  these  may  be 
named  Peter  Lombard,  Alexander  de  Hales,  Bonaven- 
TURA,  Aquinas,  and  Scotus.  These  were  men  of  very  ar- 
dent piety  ;  but  some  of  them  were  deeply  tinged  with  super- 
stition. The  founder  of  the  order  of  Franciscan  friars  was  also 
endued  with  a  zealous  spirit  of  religion.  St.  iiqo  iooa 

Francis,  amidst  much  enthusiasm,  displayed 
a  spirit  of  devotion  and  piety,  a  contempt  for  all  earthly 
things,  and  a  simplicity  of  purpose  in  the  endeavour  to  win 
souls  to  God,  which  reflect  honour  on  his  memory.  But  it 
is  to  be  lamented,  that  the  spirit  of  credulity,  if  not  of  impos- 
ture, has  been  so  largely  at  work  in  attributing  to  him  a  mass 
of  fabulous  miracles,  some  of  which  have  excited  derision  in 
later  times,  as  they  did  even  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Richard,  ordained  bishop  of  Chichester  in  1245,  aflbrds 
an  example  of  piety  and  charity.  After  his  consecration, 
King  Henry  III.  withheld  the  revenues  of  his  see  ;  so  that 
he  was  obliged  to  depend  on  the  charity  of  those  of  the  peo- 
jile  of  his  diocese  who  were  willing  to  minister  to  his  neces- 
sities ;  but  he,  nevertheless,  made  visitations,  and  adminis- 


124  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XVIII. 

tered  the  sacraments,  as  he  saw  need.  At  length,  after  en- 
during the  deprivation  of  his  lands  with  patience,  they  were 
restored  to  him  by  the  king,  but  in  a  miserable  state,  and 
plundered  of  every  thing.  He,  however,  began  to  distribute 
abundant  alms ;  and  when  his  brother,  who  managed  his  af- 
fairs, represented  that  his  revenue  was  insufficient,  he  re- 
plied :  "Is  it  right  that  we  should  eat  off  gold  and  silver, 
while  Jesus  Christ  suffers  hunger  in  the  persons  of  his  poor  1 
I  know  how  to  content  myself  with  earthen  vessels,  as  my 
father  did.  Let  every  thing  be  sold,  even  to  my  horse,  if 
there  be  need."  He  was  fervent  in  prayer,  in  fasting,  and 
all  good  works. 

He  never  gave  benefices  to  his  relatives ;  he  resisted,  with 
invincible  firmness,  the  king  and  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  wanted  him  to  prefer  an  unworthy  curate  in  his 
diocese.  He  preached  assiduously,  even  out  of  his  diocese  ; 
consoled  and  encouraged  those  penitents  who  came  to  con- 
sult him  as  their  spiritual  adviser ;  and  died,  in  1253,  as  he 
was  engaged  in  the  active  and  diligent  discharge  of  his  sa- 
cred duties. 

Robert  Grosteste,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  who  flourished  at 
the  same  time,  was  remarkable  for  sanctity  of  life,  and  purity 
and  severity  of  discipline.  He  opposed  himself,  with  re- 
markable  firmness,  to  the  exactions  and  pretensions  of  the 
popes.  On  one  occasion,  when  he  had  received  a  mandate 
from  the  pope  to  appoint  an  improper  person  to  a  benefice  in 
his  diocese,  he  wrote  in  reply,  that  the  mandate  he  had  re- 
ceived could  not  be  genuine,  as  it  pretended  to  the  power  of 
subverting  all  the  canons,  and  as  it  prescribed  a  positive  sin, 
in  requiring  the  introduction  of  a  false  pastor  into  the 
Church.  The  pope  was  very  much  irritated,  and  threatened 
to  have  him  punished  by  the  king  of  England  ;  but  the  car. 
dinals  represented  that  this  prelate's  reputation  stood  so  higt 
in  France  and  England,  that  no  remedy  could  be  hoped  for 
Grosteste  complained  of  the  pretension  of  the  popes  to  dia 
pense  with  all  the  canons  and  constitutions  of  the  Church  8 


A.D.  1054-1517.  LAURENCE  JITSTINIANI.  125 

pleasure ;  of  their  ordering  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
friars  to  persuade  the  dying  to  leave  their  goods  to  the  cru- 
sade,  and  to  take  the  cross  themselves,  in  order  to  defraud 
their  heirs  of  tlieir  goods,  and  to  enrich  the  papal  coffers ; 
of  tlieir  measuring  indulgences  in  proportion  to  the  money 
given  for  the  crusade ;  of  their  ordering  bishops  to  institute 
to  benefices  persons  who  were  foreigners,  ignorant,  or  ab- 
sent ;  of  their  permitting  persons  to  be  bishops*  without  or- 
dination,  in  order  that  they  might  enjoy  the  revenues  of  the 
Church  ;  and  of  the  general  avarice,  extortion,  and  impurity, 
which  reigned  in  the  court  of  Rome.  Grosteste  is  said  to 
have  performed  miracles  ;  but,  though  adorned  with  many 
virtues,  his  resistance  to  the  Church  of  Rome  prevented  his 
ever  being  numbered  amongst  the  saints  of  that  calendar. 
The   most  eminent  theologians  in  the  following  centuries 

were   Ockham,   an  Encrlish  ecclesiastic,         ,  ,0.-.- 

<>      ,    1       1        .  ,.   ,       .   /.  „.         about  A.D.  1320. 

who   refuted  the  doctrme  of  the    mfalh- 

bility  of  the  pope  ;  Nicholas  de  Lyra,  who  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  Scripture,  which   was  much  lono  loon 
valued  by  the  Reformers  ;  Gerson  ;  and 
Peter  D'Ailly,  who,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  argued  against 
the  papal   pretensions,  and  ably  defended  the  rights  of  the 

Church.     Gerson  was  a  man  of  eminent  ,o^o  %  Ann 

A.D.  ltJod-1429. 
piety,  and  wrote  many  devotional  trea- 
tises. The  celebrated  book  "  Of  the  Imitation  of  Christ," 
which  was  written  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis,  a  canon  in  Germany,  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  Chris- 
tian faith  and  devotion  of  the  highest  order  were  still  existing 
in  the  Church. 

There  cannot  be  a  stronger  exemplification  of  this  con- 
solatory truth  than  in  the  life  of  Laurence  Justiniani,  bishop 
and  patriarch  of  Venice. 

This  venerable  man,  whose  excellent  piety  and  abundant 

♦  [That  is,  to  hold  the  sees;  the  spiritual  functions  were  performed,  if 
attended  to  at  all,  by  vicars,  consecrated  bishops  inpartibus  infidelium,  as 
Ranish  coadjutor-bishops  now  are. — Am.  Ed.] 

11* 


126  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XVIII. 

good  works  were  worthy  of  the  brightest  ages  of  the  Church, 
was  born  in  Venice  in  1389,  of  a  noble  and  ancient  family  ; 
and  at  nineteen  years  of  age  devoted  himself  to  the  monastic 
life  in  his  native  place,  where  he  was  remarkable  for  prayer, 
fasting,  and  vigils,  and  for  the  fervour  and  zeal  of  his  piety. 
He  was  endued  with  a  remarkable  spirit  of  Christian  forti- 
tude ;  and  being  afflicted  with  an  illness  which  rendered  a 
surgical  operation  indispensable,  he  said  to  his  surgeons,  who 
trembled  at  the  danger  to  which  his  life  was  exposed,  "  What 
do  you  fear?  Let  the  razors  and  the  burning  irons  be 
brought  in.  Cannot  He  grant  me  constancy,  who  not  only 
supported  but  even  preserved  from  the  flames  the  three  chil- 
dren?" On  another  similar  occasion  he  said  to  a  sur- 
geon, "  Your  razor  cannot  exceed  the  burning  irons  of  the 
martyrs." 

While  he  resided  in  the  monastery,  he  was  remarkable 
for  his  humility :  b'^'  willingly  undertook  the  lowest  and  most 
menial  offices  in  his  community,  and  evinced  a  spirit  of 
poverty  and  self-denial  which  the  most  eminent  ascetics  might 
have  applauded.  After  some  time,  he  was  ordained  priest 
and  became  general,  or  superior  of  his  order,  which  he  re- 
formed and  regulated  with  so  much  strictness,  that  he  was 
afterwards  regarded  as  its  second  founder.  The  saying  of 
our  Lord,  that  "  out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth 
speaketh,"  was  verified  in  this  holy  man.  All  his  conversa- 
tion was  replete  with  a  spirit  of  piety,  which  melted  the 
hearts  of  those  with  whom  he  discoursed.  His  confidence  in 
the  infinite  power  and  goodness  of  God  kept  pace  with  a  per- 
fect humility  and  distrust  of  himself;  and  assiduous  prayer 
was  his  continual  support. 

In  1433  he  was  made  bishop  of  Venice,  which  was  after- 
wards, in  honour  to  his  transcendent  merits,  made  a  patri- 
archal see  by  the  pope.  He  endeavoured  ineffectually  to 
decline  this  appointment ;  and  being  exceedingly  averse  to 
pomp  and  ostentation,  he  took  possession  of  his  church  so 


A..D.  1054-1517.  LAURENCE  JUSTINIANI.  127 

privately  that  his  friends  knew  nothing  of  the  matter  till  the 
ceremony  was  over. 

When  he  was  placed  at  the  heard  of  so  great  a  church,  his 
manners  and  habits  of  life  experienced  no  alteration.  His 
household  was  placed  on  the  most  moderate  scale  ;  it  consist- 
ed only  of  five  persons.  He  had  no  plate  in  his  house,  but 
used  only  earthen  ware,  lay  on  a  straw  bed,  and  wore  no 
rich  clothing.  His  example,  his  severity  towards  himself, 
and  his  affability  and  kindnes-s  to  others,  won  the  hearts  of 
all,  and  enabled  him  to  introduce  most  important  reforms  in 
discipline.  Great  multitudes  of  people  resorted  every  day 
to  his  palace  for  advice,  comfort,  or  alms.  His  gate,  provi- 
sions, and  purse,  were  always  open  to  the  poor.  His  alms 
were  carefully  and  judiciously  distributed;  provisions  and 
clothing  were  more  frequently  given  to  applicants  than 
money.  With  a  feeling  of  the  most  considerate  sympathy, 
he  employed  pious  matrons  to  find  out  and  relieve  those  poor 
whose  modesty  prevented  them  from  soliciting  alms,  and  to 
assist  persons  of  family  in  decayed  circumstances.  These 
abundant  charities  were  but  the  result  of  a  spirit  of  divine 
love,  which  influenced  all  his  conduct.  Nothing  could  ex- 
ceed his  zeal  for  the  glory  of  God  ;  and  he  was  rewarded  by 
the  gift  of  wisdom,  which  enabled  him  to  pacify  most  violent 
dissensions  in  the  state,  and  to  govern  his  diocese  in  most  dif- 
ficult times  with  perfect  ease. 

In  his  last  illness,  his  servants  were  preparing  a  bed  for 
him,  at  which  this  self-denying  man  was  troubled,  and  said 
to  them,  "  Are  you  laying  a  feather-bed  for  me  ?  No,  that 
shall  not  be ;  my  Lord  was  stretched  on  a  hard  and  pain- 
ful tree.  Do  not  you  remember  what  St.  Martin  said  in  his 
agony,  that  a  Christian  ought  to  die  on  sack-cloth  and 
ashes '?"  He  forbade  his  friends  to  weep  for  him ;  and  as 
his  strength  failed,  often  exclaimed,  with  rapture,  "  Behold 
the  Bridegroom;  let  us  go  forth  and  meet  him."  He  added, 
with  his  eyes  raised  towards  heaven,  "  Good  Jesus,  behold,  I 
come."     When  it  was  remarked  to  him,  that  he  might  go 


128  SeCtlSIABTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XVIII. 

joyfully  to  his  crown,  he  was  much  disturbed,  and  said, 
''  The  crown  is  for  valiant  soldiers,  not  for  base  cowards 
such  as  I  am."  During  the  two  last  days  of  his  life,'  all  the 
city  came  in  turn,  according  to  their  ranks,  to  receive  his 
blessing.  He  commanded  even  the  beggars  to  be  admitted ; 
and  addressed  to  every  class  some  short  pathetic  instructions  ; 
after  which  he  departed  in  peace,  in  the  year  1455.  Such 
examples  suffice  to  show,  that  even  when  the  Church  was 
most  in  need  of  reformation,  the  grace  of  God  still  continued 
tO  produce  saving  faith,  and  to  sanctify  his  people. 

That  serious  corruptions  in  practice,  and  even  in  doctrine, 
had  now  become  common  among  Christians,  is  indeed  but  too 
evident.  Learned  and  godly  men  were  longing  for  a  refor- 
mation of  the  many  evils  by  which  religion  was  afflicted: 
but  amidst  much  of  human  infirmity  and  sin,  we  still  cannot 
avoid  recognizing  the  continued  fulfilment  of  the  promises 
of  God  to  his  Church.  The  following  expressions  of  Luther 
on  this  subject  are  well  worthy  of  attention.  "In  this 
Church,"  he  says,  "  God  miraculously  and  powerfully  pre- 
served baptism ;  moreover,  in  the  public  pulpits,  and  the 
Lord's  day  sermons,  he  preserved  the  text  of  the  Gospel  in 
the  language  of  every  nation,  besides  remission  of  sins,  and 
absolution  as  well  in  confession  as  in  public.  Again,  the  sa- 
crament of  the  altar,  which  at  Easter,  and  twice  or  three 
times  in  the  year,  they  ofTered  to  Christians,  although  they 
administered  only  one  kind  (z.  e.  the  bread.)  Again,  calling 
and  ordination  to  parishes,  and  the  ministry  of  the  word,  the 
keys  to  bind  and  loose,  and  to  comfort  in  the  agony  of  death. 
For  amongst  many  it  was  customary  to  show  the  image  of 
Christ  crucified  to  those  who  were  dying,  and  admonish  them 
of  his  death  and  blood.  Then,  by  a  Divine  miracle,  there 
remained  in  the  Church  the  Psalter,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the 
Creed,  the  Ten  Commandments.  Likewise  many  pious  and 
excellent  hymns,  which  were  left  to  posterity  by  truly  Chris- 
tian and  spiritual  men,  though  oppressed  with  tyranny. 
Wherever  were  these  truly  sacred  relics — the  relics  of  holy 


A.D.  1054-1517.  EASTERN  CHTTRCH.  129 

men — there  was  and  is  the  true  holy  Church  of  Christ,  for 
all  these  are  ordinances  and  fruits  of  Christ ;  except  the 
forcible  removal  of  one  part  of  the  sacrament  from  Chris- 
tians. In  this  Church  of  Christ,  therefore,  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  was  certainly  present,  and  preserved  trije  knowledge 
and  true  faith  in  his  elect." 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

ON  THE  EASTERN  CHURCH. 

A.D.  1054.1517. 


The  eastern  or  Greek  Church  existed  under  the  Greek  em- 
perors, in  the  country  now  called  Turkey  in  Europe  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  also  in  Russia,  Poland,  Bulgaria,  Moravia, 
Sclavonia,  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  Circassia,  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt.  It  was  governed  by  the  patriarchs  of  Constan- 
tinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  After  the 
division  between  the  Churches  of  Rome  and  Con-  1054 

stantinople,  the  eastern  and  western  Churches 
did  not  immediately  withdraw  from  mutual  communion.  In 
1155,  Basil,  archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  in  an  epistle  to 
Adrian  IV.,  allowed  that  the  Latin  Churches  held  the  ortho- 
dox  faith,  and  formed  part  of  the  universal  Church,  while  he 
denied  that  the  Greek  Church  was  guilty  of  schism  :  and  in 
1203,  Demetrius,  archbishop  of  Bulgaria,  denied  that  the 
Latins  were  heretics.  On  the  other  hand,  Peter,  abbot  of 
Clugny,  and  William  of  Tyre,  in  the  twelfth  century,  ad- 
mitled  the  Greeks  to  form  part  of  the  Catholic  Church;  and 
several  modes  of  intercourse  existed  between  the  Churches. 
The  popes,  however,  being  full  of  the  notion  of  their  own 
supremacy  over  the  whole  Church,  always  treated  the  Greeks 
as  schismatics;  and  though  they  entered  into  many  negotia- 
tions with  the  Greek  emperors,   for  the  re-union  of  East  and 


130  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XIX. 

West,  the  first  article  always  insisted  on  was,  that  the  Greek 
Church  should  ohey  the  pope.  Had  the  popes  merely  desired 
to  restore  the  communion  of  the  Churches,  leaving  the 
Greeks  their  ancient  indeperxlence  and  equality,  there  would 
have  been  no  difficulty ;  but  they  refused,  and  rightly  re- 
fused, to  place  their  religion,  their  discipline,  the-ir  property 
and  persons,  at  the  feet  of  pontiffs  who  pretended  to  infal- 
libility, and  who  refused  to  be  bound  by  any  laws  or  canons.* 
The  views  of  the  eastern  Church  on  this  subject  are  ex- 
emplified  by  the  words  of  Nechites,  archbishop  of  Nicome- 
^ ,  „«  dia,  in  his  conference  with  a  Latin  bishop  :  "  We 
*  do  not  refuse  the  Roman  Church,"  he  said,  "  the 
first  rank  among  her  sisters  the  patriarchal  Churches,  and  we 
acknowledge  that  she  presides  in  a  general  council ;  but  she 
separated  from  us  by  her  pride,  when,  exceeding  her  power, 
she  divided  the  empire  and  the  Churches  of  the  East  and 
West.  When  she  holds  a  council  of  western  bishops  with- 
out us,  it  is  well  that  they  should  observe  their  own  decrees  ; 
but  how  can  we  be  expected  to  obey  decrees  made  without 
our  knowledge  1  If  the  pope  pretends  to  send  us  his  orders, 
fulminating  from  his  lofty  throne,  and  to  dispose  of  us  and 
our  churches  at  his  own  discretion,  without  advising  with  us, 
what  paternity  or  what  fraternity  is  there  in  that?  We  should 
be  only  slaves,  not  children  of  the  Church.  The  Roman 
Church  alone  would  enjoy  liberty,  and  give  laws  to  all  others, 
without  being  subject  to  any  herself.  We  do  not  find  in  any 
creed,  that  we  are  bound  to  confess  the  Roman  Church  in 
particular,  but  one  holy,  catholic,  and  apostolic  Church. 
This  is  what  I  say  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  I  revere  with 
you ;  but  I  do  not  with  you  believe  it  a  duty  to  follow  her 
necessarily  in  all  things,    nor  that  we  ought  to  relinquish  our 

•  [It  ought  not  to  be  overlooked,  how  the  providence  of  God  thus  made 
the  Roman  attempts  at  usurpation  provide  an  insuperable  bar  to  the  subse- 
quent claim  of  catholicity  for  Romish  corruptions  in  doctrine  and  practice. 
The  latter  mighi  have  become  universal,  but  for  the  jealous  hostility 
a-wakened  by  the  former. — Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.   1054-1517.  EASTERN  CHUKCH.  131 

rites,  arid  adopt  her  mode  of  performing  the  sacraments,  with- 
out  examining  it  by  reason  and  the  Scriptures." 

The  crusades  which  the  popes  set  on  foot  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land,  but  which  led  to  the  subjugation  of  Con- 
stantinople, Cyprus,  and  a  great  part  of  the  Greek  empire, 
by  Latin  chieftains,  tended  much  to  promote  unfriendly 
feelings  between  the  Churches.  Latin  bishops  were  institut- 
ed in  Jerusalem,  Antloch,  Constantinople,  Greece,  Cyprus, 
although  there  were  already  Greek  bishops  in  those  sees  ; 
and  the  Crusaders  in  many  places  profaned  the  Greek 
Churches,  expelted  their  clergy,  or  forced  them,  on  pain  of 
death,  to  become  obedient  to  Rome.  The  Greeks  retaliated 
v/hen  they  were  able  ;  and  the  Churches  became  much  more 
estranged  from  each  other. 

In  the  year  1261,  the  Greek  emperor  Michael  Paleologus 
recovered  Constantinople  from  the  Latins ;  and  fearing  that 
the  pope  would  proclaim  a  crusade  against  him,  he  entered 
into  negociations  for  the  union  of  the  Clvjrches,  and  com- 
pelled  some  of  the  Greek  bishops  to  write  to  the  pope  and 
the  council  of  Lyons,  admitting  the  primacy  of  in-y,, 

the  Roman  see,  and  expressmg  their  wi-^h  for 
union.  A  letter  from  the  emperor  was  also  read  in  the 
council,  in  which  he  professed  his  belief  in  the  Roman  pri- 
macy, in  purgatory,  transubstantiation,  and  seven  sacra- 
ments, as  the  pope  had  com.manded.  The  council  then  per- 
mitted the  re-union  of  the  Greek  Church  to  the  Latin,  and 
did  not  require  any  alteration  in  their  form  of  worship.  But 
in  1280  the  pope  again  excommunicated  the  Greeks  for  not 
obeying  his  commands,  and  the  temporary  union  came  to  an 
end.  When  Constantinople  was  threatened  by  the  Turks,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  Greek  emperor  John  Paleologus, 
desirous  of  obtaining  the  pope's  assistance  for  his  falling  em- 
pire, came  with  several  Greek  bishops  to  the  synod  of 
Florence,  where,  after  much  disputation,  those  ,  .„„ 

prelates  were  compelled  to  subscribe  to  the  doc- 
tTiine  of  purgatory,  the  papal  primacy,  and  the  procession  ef 


132  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XX. 

the  Holy  Spirit  as  held  by  the  Roman  Church :  but  on  their 
return  to  Greece,  they  were  condemned  by  the  eastern 
Church,  and  the  proposed  union  fell  to  the  ground.  Constan- 
tinople was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1453  ;  and  the  Christians 
of  those  countries  have  been  ever  since  much  oppressed  by 
these  infidels:  but  the  popes  discovered  that  the  attempt 
to  reduce  the  Greek  Church  beneath  their  sway  was  a  hope- 
less one. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

ABUSES  AND  OORRUPTIONS. 

A.D.  1054-1517. 

The  grand  and  crying  evil  of  these  ages  was  the  position 
of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  who  were  now  exalted  in  the  western 
Church  to  such  a  height  of  power,  and  invested  by  them- 
selves and  their  adherents  with  such  extravagant  privileges, 
that  the  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  governments  through- 
out Europe  were  every  where  agitated  and  enslaved,  and  the 
rights  of  sovereigns,  the  liberties  of  Churches,  the  holiest 
discipline  of  antiquity,  were  ruthlessly  invaded  and  subverted. 
The  spirit  of  the  world  discovered  itself  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  court  of  Rome  ;  and  ambition,  cupidity,  and  pride, 
were  but  too  frequently  the  characteristics  of  the  Roman  pon- 
tiffs. These  evils  were  the  result  of  false  maxims.  The 
flatterers  of  the  popes  had,  for  several  ages  before  those  now 
under  consideration,  attributed  too  extensive  powers  to  them. 
It  had  become  a  settled  notion  in  the  western  Churches,  that 
the  bishops  of  Rome  were  the  successors  of  St.  Peter  in  the 
primacy  of  the  Church  by  divine  appointment.  The  spurious 
decretals,  already  alluded  to,  represented  them  as,  even  from 
the  time  of  the  apostles,  claiming  and  exercising  an  extend- 
ed jurisdiction  over  all  Churches.     Hence  it  followed  neces- 


A.D.  1054-1517.  PAPAL  POWER.  133 

sarily  that  it  was  the  duty  of  every  Church  and  every  Chris, 
tian  to  be  in  communion  with,  and  to  be  subject  to,  the 
pope  ;  and  tiierefore  that  those  who  were  out  of  his  commu- 
nion, or  disobedient  to  him,  were  not  Christian.  This  was, 
in  fact,  to  invest  the  Roman  pontiff  with  absolute  power  in 
temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  matters  ;  for  if,  as  it  was  main- 
tained, it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  every  Christian  to  be 
in  his  communion,  the  only  thing  requisite  to  obtain  obe- 
dience, whether  from  kings  or  bishops,  was  to  threaten  or 
inflict  excommunication  upon  them.  Sooner  or  later  this 
formidable  sentence  was  pretty  sure  to  weigh  upon  the  con- 
sciences of  those  who  were  disobedient  to  the  papal  com- 
mands, or  on  those  of  their  adherents  ;  so  that  these  prelates 
had  little  to  do  except  to  wait  for  the  issue  of  events,  and  al- 
ways, in  fine,  to  receive  the  most  humble  apologies  and 
entreaties  for  pardon,  together  with  the  whole,  or  at  least 
some  part,  of  their  demands,  hov/ever  unreasonable  or  ex- 
travagant. 

The  papal  power  was  first  developed  in  all  its  extent  by 
the  celebrated  Hildebrand,  or  Gregory  VII.,  who  ascended 
the  throne  in  1073.*  He  was  a  man  of  undaunted  courage 
and  energy,  and  deeply  embued  with  notions  of  the  extent 
of  the  papal  supremacy.  He  accordingly  excommunicated 
and  deposed  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  for  dis- 
obedience to  his  mandates,  and  compelled  him  1077 
at  last  to  sue  for  absolution  with  the  greatest 
humility.  On  further  symptoms  of  disobedience,  he  again 
deposed  and  excommunicated  him,  gave  his  dominions  to 
another  prince,  and  excited  a  rebellion  against  him.  He 
claimed,  and  in  many  instances  succeeded  in  obtaining,  the 
acknow  ledgment  of  his  feudal  superiority,  or  temporal  juris- 
diction, over  France,  England,  Hungary,  Denmark,  Poland, 
Russia,  Norway,  Dalmatia,  Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica, 

♦  [He  had  prepared  the  way  for  his  own  undertakings,  by  the  virtual  ex- 
ercise of  the  papal  power  under  his  immediate  predecessors,  from  A.D.  1049. 
—Am.  Ed.] 

13 


134  ECCLESIASTICAL  HiSTORY.  CH.  XX. 

&c.  France  and  England  for  the  present  resisted  these 
claims  successfully;  but  in  the  reign  of  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  John,  king  of  England,  was  oblig- 
ed to  declare  himself  a  subject  of  the  Roman  see,  and  to 
pay  tribute  to  it.  As  for  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  every 
country,  Gregory  disposed  of  them  as  if  the  whole  world  were 
his  diocese,  and  the  bishops  were  merely  his  assistants  or 
deputies.  This,  indeed,  was  a  notion  which  in  the  following 
centuries  was  boldly  avowed  and  acted  on  by  the  popes. 
Legates,  or  papal  viceroys,  were  continually  going  from 
Rome  into  all  countries,  and  enforcing  the  new  mandates  or 
exactions  of  their  masters,  to  the  infinite  trouble,  expense, 
and  annoyance  of  kings,  prelates,  and  people  ;  but  it  was  in 
yain  that  they  protested,  petitioned,  complained,  and  threat- 
ened, ol'  offered  resistance.  Their  own  notions  of  the  papal 
authority  were  a  chain  round  their  necks,  which  never  failed 
to  bring  them  ultimately  into  subjection. 

The  history  of  Europe,  from  this  period,  for  two  or  three 
centuries,  is  little  more  than  a  history  of  the  popes  ;  of  their 
contests  with  emperors  and  kings ;  their  deposal  of  some 
monarchs,  their  creation  of  others  ;  of  armies  which  they 
commanded  to  be  fitted  out  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Land,  for  the  extermination  of  heretics,  for  the  subjugation 
of  heathen,  or  for  the  dethronement  of  their  own  enemies  ; 
of  the  taxes  which  they  levied  from  all  churches  and  states, 
either  for  the  crusades,  for  their  own  wars  with  princes,  or 
for  their  pleasure  ;  of  the  controversies  and  wars  which  their 
disputed  elections  excited.  All  this  was  done  on  principle 
There  were  good  men  among  the  popes  and  among  thei' 
adherents  ;  but  the  false  maxims,  to  which  I  have  before  ad 
verted,  were  so  deeply  engrained  in  their  minds,  that  it  wa? 
a  matter  of  conscience  with  them  to  act  as  they  did.  Thf 
history  of  these  ages  is  alone  sufHcient  to  show  that  there 
were  some  great  mistakes  abroad  with  regard  to  the  papal 
authority ;  it  occupies  far  too  large  a  space  in  the  transac 
tions  of  the  period  before  us.     Even  St.  Bernard  was  obliged 


A.D.  1054-1517.  PAFAL  POWER.  1^ 

to  expend  a  great  portion  of  his  energy,  zeal,  and  piety,  for 
many  years,  in  maintaining  the  disputed  election  of  a  pope. 
The  world  and  tiie  Church  were  disturbed  with  controversies 
of  this  kind,  to  the  neglect  of  the  practical  duties  and  elevat- 
ed contemplations  of  true  religion. 

No  part  of  the  Church  smarted  more  severely  under  the 
papal  tyranny  (for  such  it  became)  than  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Let  us  dwell  a  moment  on  some  particulars  of  its  his 
tory  in  the  thirteenth  century.  In  1240,  Cardinal  Otho,  one 
of  those  legates  v/ith  whom  the  popes  were  continually  troub- 
ling tlie  Churches,  published  at  London  a  mandate,  in  which 
permission  was  given  to  all  persons  who  had  taken  the  cross 
(?'.  e.  vowed  to  fight  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,)  to 
obtain*absolution  from  their  vow,  on  condition  of  paying  to 
the  pope  the  sum  which  they  would  have  expended  in  their 
journey.  This  was  a  frequent  practice  of  the  popes  by  which 
they  much  injured  these  expeditions.  The  money  went  into 
their  coffers,  with  the  understanding  that  it  was  to  be  applied 
to  the  use  of  the  Crusaders  actually  engaged  in  Palestine ; 
but  it  was  frequently  diverted  to  other  purposes.  The  cler- 
gy of  England  shortly  after  assembled  at  Reading,  when 
Cardinal  Otho  represented  that  the  pope  was  sorely  pressed 
for  money,  in  his  dispute  with  the  Emperor  Frederick,  and  de- 
manded instantly  a  fifth  part  of  their  revenues.  The  bishops 
objected,  but  at  length  paid  the  exaction.  Some  time  after, 
a  mandate  came  from  the  pope  to  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  bishops  of  Lincoln  and  Salisbury,  to  appoint  three 
hundred  Roman  subjects  to  the  next  vacant  benefices,  on  pain 
of  being  suspended  from  conferring  all  benefices! 

In  1244  the  pope  sent  an  emissary  into  England,  with  a  let- 
ter to  the  abbots  of  the  diocese  of  Canterbury,  stating  that 
the  sums  drawn  by  the  late  pope  from  England  and  other 
states  had  been  insufficient  to  discharge  his  debts  contracted 
for  the  defence  of  iiis  patrimony  and  the  liberties  of  the 
Church.  He  therefore  ordered  them  to  aid  him  with  the 
sums  of  money  which  his  agent  should  mention  within  a  given 


136  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  Cfl.  XX. 

time.  The  nuncio  was  supplied  with  many  bulls,  in  order  to 
bestow  the  best  benefices,  or  their  revenues,  on  the  pope's 
relatives.  The  pope  soon  after  wrote  to  the -clergy  of  Eng- 
land, commanding  them  to  give  liberally  to  the  king.  In 
1245  the  ambassadors  of  the  king  of  England,  in  the  coun- 
cil of  Lyons,  read  a  letter,  addressed  by  the  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land to  the  pope,  complaining  that  his  predecessors,  wishing 
to  enrich  the  Italians,  who  had  become  excessively  numerous, 
had  given  them  such  a  multitude  of  benefices  in  England, 
that  their  income  amounted  to  60,000  marks  of  silver,  a 
greater  revenue  than  the  king  possessed;  that  these  Italians, 
indifferent  to  the  souls  intrusted  to  them,  and  only  desirous 
of  the  revenues  of  their  benefices,  lived  abroad ;  that  the 
nuncio  had  recently  conferred  all  vacant  benefices* worth 
thirty  marks  on  Italians,  and  provided  that  on  their  death, 
C'thers  should  succeed,  to  the  destruction  of  the  rights  of 
patrons.  Many  other  abuses  were  mentioned  :  but  the  pope, 
having  heard  the  letter,  would  make  no  reply  further  than 
that  an  affair  of  so  much  consequence  deserved  full  con- 
sideration. In  the  following  year  another  vigorous  attempt 
was  made.  It  was  resolved  by  the  parliament  of  England 
that  an  embassy  should  carry  to  the  pope^re  letters,  from  the 
bishops,  the  abbots,  the  lords  and  commons,  and  the  king, 
respectfully  demanding  redress,  and  threatening,  in  case  of 
not  obtaining  it,  no  longer  to  obey  the  Church  of  Rome. 
While  these  letters  were  on  their  way,  the  pope,  having 
learned  that  many  rich  English  ecclesiastics  died  intestate, 
decreed  that  the  possessions  of  all  who  should  hereafter  die 
intestate  should  revert  to  himself;  and  commissioned  the 
Franciscan  and  Dominican  friars  to  see  to  the  execution  of 
this  mandate.  The  pope  was  enraged  when  he  heard  of  the 
opposition  offered  to  his  exactions,  and  resolved,  to  place 
England  under  an  interdict ;  but  he  was  appeased  by  the  am- 
bassadors,  who  assured  him  that  the  king  would  speedily 
yield  what  he  desired.  The  next  year  he  sent  over  a  man. 
date  that  all  the  resident  clergy  of  England  should  pay  one- 


A.D.  1054-1517.  PAPAL  POWER.  137 

third  of  their  revenue,  and  the  non-resident  one-half^  to  the 
see  of  Rome.  The  clergy,  however,  were  prevented  from 
paying  this  exaction  by  the  king.  In  1252  we  find  that  the 
king  had  obtained  from  the  pope  a  tenth  of  the  incomes  of  the 
clergy  and  people  of  England  for  three  years,  under  pretence 
of  a  crusade.  In  1255  a  papal  nuncio  came  to  levy  a  tenth 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  for  the  pope  or  the  king. 
The  nuncio  then  preached  a  crusade  against  Mainfroy,  king 
of  Sicily,  an  enemy  of  the  pope,  and  demanded  immense 
sums  from  the  English  bishops  for  this  object. 

The  proceedings  of  these  few  years  will  afford  a  sufficient 
specimen  of  the  servitude  to  which  the  prevalence  of  false 
maxims  had  reduced  the  Church.  Some  princes  resisted 
such  claims  more  effectually  than  others ;  but  they  were  con- 
tinually liable  to  recur ;  and  the  papal  power  was  always 
encroaching  and  usurping  the  rights  of  the  Church  and 
State. 

During  the  period  now  under  consideration,  the  evil  of  ap- 
peals to  the  popes  came  to  its  height.  No  cause  could  oc- 
cur in  spiritual  matters  which  might  not  be  carried  by  appeal 
directly  before  the  tribunal  at  Rome,  to  the  delay  of  justice, 
the  impoverishment  of  suitors,  and  the  subversion  of  the 
authority  of  bishops  and  metropolitans.  Vast  sums  of  money 
were  in  this  way  continually  draining  out  of  England ;  and 
it  should  be  remembered  too,  that  by  custom,  or  the  con- 
cession of  princes,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  extended 
in  those  ages  to  a  great  number  of  temporal  causes,  besides 
those  of  wills,  matrimony,  tithes,  and  ecclesiastical  property, 
the  right  of  patronage,  and  the  correction  of  morals,  to  which 
it  is  now  chiefly  limited.  It  is  admitted,  even  by  the  most 
learned  Romanists,  that  appeals  to  the  papal  see  are  of  mere 
human  institution. 

About  the  twelfth  century  it  became  customary  with  the 
popes  to  give  dispensations  or  exemptions  from  the  laws  of 
the  Church.  They  would,  either  for  money  or  favour,  per- 
mit  one  person  to  hold  several  benefices  or  even  bishoprics. 

12* 


138  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XX. 

They  would  dispense  with  a  bishop  elect  remaining  without 
ordination  for  years,*  or  would  permit  children  or  other  im- 
proper persons  to  be  nominated  to  benefices.  They  would 
give  dispensations  for  non-residence ;  for  irregularities  of  all 
sorts.  In  short,  there  was  scarcely  any  law  or  rule  of  the 
Church  which  they  did  not  continually  dispense  with.  The 
consequence  was,  that  ecclesiastical  discipline  became  most 
grievously  relaxed.  The  bishops  and  clergy  were  too  fre- 
quently infected  by  such  evil  examples ;  and  a  spirit  of  world- 
liness,  self-indulgence,  and  habitual  neglect  of  duties,  began 
largely  to  prevail. 

About  the  same  time  the  popes  began  to  claim  the  ap- 
pointment to  archbishoprics,  bishoprics,  and  all  other  bene- 
fices. The  appointment  to  the  former  was  first  seized  on. 
The  ancient  custom  of  sending  a  pall  to  the  bishop  of  the 
principal  see  in  each  country,  was  made  the  pretext  for  first 
exacting  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope,  then  prohibiting 
the  discharge  of  any  metropolitical  powers  without  it.  At 
length  the  popes  began  to  issue  bulls,  appointing  the  metro- 
politan to  his  see  ;  and  afterwards,  especially  during  the  great 
western  schism,  from  1370  to  1414,  when  rival  popes  divided 
the  whole  of  Europe  into  two  or  three  different  communions, 
the  appointment  to  bishoprics,  and  to  all  other  benefices,  was 
usurped. 

The  plenary  indulgences  which  the  popes  issued,  first  to 
the  Crusaders,  but  afterwards  to  many  other  persons,  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  the  penitential  discipline  of  the  Church. 
These  indulgences  or  pardons  were  the  remission  of  the 
lengthened  works  of  penitence  imposed  by  the  ancient  can- 
ons. All  that  was  necessary  to  obtain  them,  was  to  confess 
to  a  priest  all  past  sins,  to  go  to  the  crusade  in  Palestine  or  in 
some  other  country,  or  to  perform  some  other  work  assigned 
by  the  pope. 

Such  were  some  of  the  principal   evils  under  which  the 

*  [During  which  his  episcopal  functions  were  discharged,  if  at  all,  b) 
Ticars,  in  episcopal  orders. — Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.  1054-1517.  MONASTIC  ABTTSES.  139 

western  Churches  suffered  from  the  papal  supremacy.  That 
supremacy  was  chiefly  sustained  by  the  monks  and  the  beg- 
ging  friars.  The  former  now  gradually  became  extremely 
relaxed  in  discipline,  and  fell  into  contempt.  In  the  tiiir. 
teenth  century  they  received  incomes  from  their  monasteries, 
and  their  situations  became  so  many  good  benefices.  They 
went  out  without  permission,  accepted  invitations  from  lay- 
men, and  remained  out  of  their  cloister.  They  had  proper- 
ty of  their  own,  borrowed  money,  went  security  for  others, 
and  partook  of  all  the  indulgences  of  ordinary  life.  Labour 
was  now  commonly  discontinued,  the  time  of  fasting  very 
much  abbreviated,  on  the  pretence  that  human  nature  had  less 
strength  than  in  ancient  times.  The  monks  were  now  no 
longer  in  deserts,  apart  from  society,  and  devoted  to  medita- 
tion  and  silence.  They  studied  at  the  universities,  mingled 
in  the  affairs  of  Church  and  State,  undertook  the  care  of 
parishes,  indulged  in  recreations.  They  were  generally 
exempt  from  the  visitations  of  bishops,  by  the  favour  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs,  and  left  entirely  to  their  own  management. 

All  this  was  widely  different  from  the  manners  of  the  an- 
cient monks,  who  were  religious  in  deed,  as  a  learned  wri- 
ter has  said,  and  not  merely  in  name.  There  was  little 
thought  of  following  the  example  of  the  venerable  St.  Colum- 
ban.  When  Sigebert,  king  of  France,  had  offered  him 
large  possessions  in  that  country,  in  the  hope  of  retaining 
him  there,  the  holy  man  replied :  "  We  who  have  forsaken 
our  own,  that  according  to  the  commandment  of  the  Gospel, 
we  might  follow  the  Lord,  ought  not  to  em.brace  other  men's 
riches,  lest  paradventure  we  should  prove  transgressors  of 
the  divine  commandment."  The  rule  universally  adopted  by 
the  primitive  ascetics  was,  that  "  they  which  live  in  monas- 
leries  should  work  in  silence,  and  eat  their  own  hread.''^ 

The  begging  friars,  who  were  instituted  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  exhibited  for  a  time  a  very  ardent  zeal,  and  a  spirit 
of  poverty  and  self-denial,  which  in  some  degree  resembled 
that  of  the  ancient  ascetics.     Their  great  boast  was,  to  pos- 


HO  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XX. 

sess  no  property  whatever,  either  personally  or  as  a  commu- 
nity. This,  however,  did  not  prevent  them  from  having 
large  funds  at  their  disposal ;  for  while  they  would  have  es- 
teemed it  an  unpardonable  offence  to  receive  any  thing  for 
themselves  directly,  they  had  no  scruple  in  receiving  dona- 
tions and  benefactions  to  any  amount  "  for  the  pope  and  the 
Roman  Church,"  to  be  applied,  however,  to  their  own  par- 
ticular uses.  This  ingenious  distinction  enabled  them  to  pro- 
fess their  own  utter  poverty,  to  beg  with  the  utmost  importu- 
nity, and  to  be  at  once  theoretically  the  poorest,  and  practi- 
cally the  vv^ealthiest  orders  in  Europe. 

Richard  Fitz-Ralph,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  in  the  four- 
1S40  I'iCO  teenth  century,  who  was  a  strong  oppo- 
nent of  the  begging  friars,  objected  against 
them,  in  the  presence  of  the  pope  and  cardinals,  that  in  his 
time  "  scarce  could  any  great  or  mean  man  of  the  clergy  or 
the  laity  eat  his  meat,  but  such  kind  of  beggars  would  be  at 
his  elbow ;  not  like  other  poor  folks,  humbly  craving  alms  at 
the  gate  or  the  door,  (as  St.  Francis  did  command  and  teach 
them  in  his  testament,)  by  begging,  but  without  shame  in- 
truding  themselves  into  courts  or  houses,  and  lodging  there, 
where,  without  any  invitation  at  all,  they  eat  and  drink  what 
they  find  among  them  ;  and  not  content  with  that,  carry  away 
with  them  either  wheat,  or  meal,  or  bread,  or  flesh,  or 
cheeses,  although  there  were  but  two  in  a  house,  in  a  kind 
of  extorting  manner,  there  being  none  that  can  deny  them, 
unless  he  should  cast  away  natural  modesty."  Religion  was 
degraded  by  this  mean  and  sordid  system,  which  clothed  it- 
self with  the  character  of  superior  piety  and  perfection, 
while  it  disgusted  every  pious  mind  by  its  habits  of  grasping 
extortion.  The  spirit  of  secularity  and  of  luxury  soon  found 
an  entrance  amongst  these  begging  friars  ;  they  became  still 
more  engaged  in  the  affairs  of  the  world  than  the  monks,  and 
fixed  their  residences  in  the  midst  of  populous  cities  and  of 
the  world. 

What  might  naturally  be  expected,  followed.     The  monaa- 


A.D.  1054-1517.  PENITENCE.  141 

teries,  which  had  been  originally  intended  to  afford  examples 
of  perfect  purity,  devotion  towards  God,  and  deadness  to  the 
world,  were  polluted  by  gross  sins ;  and  having  ceased  to  be 
advantageous  to  Christianity, — though  even  in  the  worst  times 
they  were  useful  to  a  certain  extent  in  preserving  ancient 
books  and  monuments,  and  in  affording  education, — they  had 
become  an  incumbrance  to  the  Church,  which  it  was  neces- 
sary to  remove. 

The  bishops  and  clergy  themselves  shared  but  too  often  in 
the  evils  of  the  times.  We  read  of  archbishops  and  bishops 
engaged  in  wars,  crusades,  and  other  temporal  avocations. 
They  were  chancellors,  chief-justiciaries,  ministers,  regents, 
embassadors.  Hunting  and  hawking  were  their  not  unfre- 
quent  amusements.  They  were  engaged  more  in  temporal 
than  spiritual  affairs.  The  clergy  were  still  ignorant,  though 
less  so  than  in  former  ages.  They  too  much  neglected 
preaching ;  and  the  mendicant  friars,  by  permission  of  the 
popes,  half  superseded  them  in  their  offices, — preached,  ad- 
ministered the  sacraments,  and  became  spiritual  directors  of 
their  parishioners.  The  bishops  and  clergy  were  often  ex- 
ceedingly unpopular  amongst  the  laity,  and  bitter  complaints 
were  made  of  their  ambition  and  exactions. 

Let  me  now  notice  a  few  of  the  corruptions  introduced  in 
these  ages.  In  the  eleventh  century  it  was  supposed  that  for 
every  particular  sin  it  was  necessary  to  fulfil  the  time  of  peni- 
tence prescribed  by  the  ancient  canons ;  so  that  if  ten  years 
had  been  appointed  for  homicide,  a  man  who  had  committed 
that  sin  twenty  times  was  bound  to  discharge  two  hundred 
years  of  penance.  This  led  ingenious  men  to  discover 
ways  of  paying  the  debt.  Peter  Damian, 
in  the  twelfth  century,  affirmed  that  the  *  ' 
repetition  of  the  Psalter  twenty  times,  accompanied  by 
discipline  (that  is,  scourging,)  was  equal  to  a  hundred  years 
of  penitence.  A  friend  of  his  requested  him,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Lent,  to  impose  on  him  a  thousand  years  of  peni- 
tence, and  he  nearly  finished  his  satisfaction  before  the  end 


142  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XX 

of  Lent !  Another  invention  was  the  discharge  of  penitence 
by  one  person  for  another.  These  strange  doctrines  obtain- 
ed much  popularity,  though  many  persons  disapproved  of 
them. 

A  distinct  office  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  was  used  by  some 
persons  in  the  tenth  century;  it  became  common  in  the 
eleventh  ;  and  the  monks,  about  the  same  time,  added  the 
office  of  the  dead  to  their  daily  devotions.  In  these  ages, 
persons  not  unfrequently,  on  the  approach  of  death,  caused 
themselves  to  be  arrayed  in  the  garments  of  monks,  imagin- 
ing that  these  holy  vestments  would  protect  them  against  the 
devil.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  a  new  devotion  for  the  laity 
was  invented  by  Dominic.  Men  were  taught  to  repeat  the 
angel's  salutation  to  the  Virgin  150  times,  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer  fifteen  times,  that  is,  once  after  each  decade  of  Aves. 
The  prayers  were  reckoned  by  beads ;  and  the  whole  cere- 
mony obtained  the  name  of  Rosary.  Dominic  invented  some 
other  devotions  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  scapulary,  a  por- 
tion of  the  monk's  dress,  was  now  worn  by  some  persons  as 
a  sort  of  charm  :  the  Carmelites  were  loud  in  their  as- 
surances of  the  blessings  which  might  be  expected  by  its 
possessors.  Several  persons  wore  sackcloth  or  haircloth 
next  their  skin,  by  way  of  voluntary  mortification.  The 
mendicant  friars  introduced  a  custom  which  was  extremely 
prejudicial  in  its  effects.  They  granted  absolution  imme- 
diately to  those  who  confessed  their  sins,  without  waiting  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  penitence  which  they  assigned 
them.  This  led  men  to  think  they  might  sin  without  dan- 
ger ;  as  a  simple  confession,  with  promise  of  amendment 
was  sufficient  to  procure  the  priests'  remission  of  their  sins 
In  the  thirteenth  century  also,  the  eucharist  began  to  be  ele. 
vated  afler  consecration,  and  the  people  were  taught  to  bo\t 
or  prostrate  themselves  at  the  same  time.  Hence  many  per- 
sons were  in  danger  of  offering  worship  to  the  bread  and 
wine.  It  became  customary  in  this  age  to  administer  the  sa- 
crament to  the  laity  only  in  one  kind,  that  is,  the  bread. 


A.D.  1054-1517.  SCHOLASTIC  THEOLOGY.  145 

This  custom  was  inconsistent  with  the  institution  of  our 
Lord,  and  the  practice  of  the  whole  Church  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years;  but  it  was  nevertheless  sanctioned  by  the 
councils  of  Constance  in  1414,  and. Basil  in  1438.  I  have 
not  spoken  of  the  invocation  of  saints,  the  veneration  for 
relics  and  images,  which  in  these  ages  continued  to  be  ex 
cessive,  nor  of  many  other  minor  superstitions  and  errors. 
These  will  sufficiently  show  the  great  necessity  for  reforma- 
tion in  the  Church.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  many  persons 
were  more  or  less  free  from  superstitions  ;  but  a  great  change 
was  imperatively  called  for.  Few  things  needed  reformation 
more  than  the  system  of  theological  instruction  in  universi- 
ties, commonly  called  the  scholastic  theology. 

Schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  clergy  and  laity  had  ex- 
isted generally  in  cathedral  churches  and  monasteries  from 
the  remotest  antiquity  ;  but,  about  the  twelfth  century,  the 
schools  in  some  cities  became  very  celebrated  and  extensive^ 
and  were  known  under  the  name  of  Universities.  The  prin- 
cipal universities,  during  the  middle  ages,  were  those  of 
Paris,  Oxford,  Bologna,  and  Salamanca.  They  were  en- 
dowed with  revenues,  and  granted  many  privileges,  by 
princes  and  popes.  Instruction  was  given  to  students  in  the 
four  faculties  of  t"heology,  law,  medicine,  and  the  arts,  by 
the  doctors  in  those  faculties.  Peter  Lombard,  bishop  of  Paris, 
a  celebrated    doctor    of  theology,    published  ,,,.v^ 

A.D.  1172 

a  treatise  entitled  the  The  Book  of  Sentences^ 
in  which  the  various  doctrines  of  revelation  were  collected 
and  explained  from  the  writings  of  the  fathers.  This  work 
formed  the  basis  of  the  scholastic  theology ;  it  became  the 
text-book  on  which  all  the  subsequent  theologians  commented, 
and  to  which  they  added  all  the  subtilties  of  the  Aristotelic 
philosopliy.  The  ablest  of  the  scholastic  writers  were  Tho- 
mas Aquinas  and  Scotus. 

The  text-book  of  the  canonists,  or  students  of  canon  law, 
was  the  work  of  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  entitled  De- 
cretum,  and  written  about  a.d.  1130,  in  which  the  ancient 


144  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.   X*'. 

canons  of  councils  were  collected,  and  reconciled  with  each 
other  and  with  the  decretals  of  the  popes.  In  this  collection 
all  the  spurious  decretals  of  the  early  popes,  fabricated  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  were  introduced ;  and  as  Gratian 
entertained  very  exaggerated  notions  of  the  papal  authority, 
this  book,  which  was  immediately  received  as  of  the  highest 
authority  in  all  the  schools  of  Europe,  tended  greatly  to  in- 
crease the  influence  of  the  popes.  The  study  of  canon  law 
became  so  popular,  and  led  so  certainly  to  advancement  in 
the  Church,  that  theology  and  the  arts  were  much  neglected  ; 
and  more  than  one  pope  felt  himself  bound  to  discourage 
this  exclusive  application. 

From  the  twelfth  century,  the  writers  of  the  early  fathers 
and  the  decrees  of  councils  were  little  known  in  the  schools, 
except  through  the  medium  of  The  Book  of  Sentences  or  the 
Decretiim.  This  is  allowed  by  a  learned  Roman  Catholic 
historian,  the  Abbe  Fleury,  who  says,  that  ^'  it  was  the  mis. 
fortune  of  the  doctors  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies  to  know  but  little  of  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  espe- 
cially  the  more  ancient,  and  to  be  deficient  in  the  aids  requi- 
site for  well  understanding  them.  It  is  not  that  their  books 
were  lost ;  they  existed,  for  we  have  them  still ;  but  the 
copies  were  scarce,  and  hidden  in  the  libraries  of  the  ancient 
monasteries,  where  little  use  was  made  of  them."  He  adds, 
that  King  Louis  IX.  of  France,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
caused  many  of  them  to  be  transcribed  ;  and  that  Vincent 
IcfQQ  of  Beauvais  made  extracts  from  them,  and 

,,«^  ,,^^        John   of  Salisbury   cited  them   frequent. 
A.D.  1130-1182.       ,       ,,,,„,  .•  ,,.,. 

ly:  "  but,  he  contmues,  "  this  was  mere- 
ly the  curiosity  of  some  individuals.  The  generality  of  stu- 
dents, and  even  of  doctors,  limited  themselves  to  a  few  books, 
chiefly  those  of  modern  authors,  which  they  understood  bet- 
ter than  the  ancients."  "  I  do  not  cease  to  wonder,"  he  con- 
tinues, "  that  in  such  calamitous  times,  and  with  such  small 
aid,  the  doctors  so  faithfully  preserved  to  us  the  deposit  of 
tradition  with  regard  to  doctrine."      The  Abbe  Goujet,  an- 


A.D.  1054-1517.  SCHOLASTIC  THEOLOGT.  145 

Other  Roman  Catholic  divine,  confirms  this;  and  observes 
also,  that  the  study  of  Scripture  "  had  been  extremely  neg- 
lected" in  these  ages.  "  They  did  not  study  it  even  in  the 
schools  of  theology  but  with  lukewarmness  ;  and  often  con- 
tented themselves  with  such  extracts  from  it  as  were  found  in 
the  writings  of  some  superficial  theologian.  Hence  arose 
the  ignorance  of  tlie  clergy,  and  the  few  defenders  which  the 

Church   found  against  heresies At  length   the 

study  of  holy  Scripture  caused  men  to  escape  from  this 
lethargy ;  men  then  perceived  the  crowd  of  errors  and  false 
opinions  which  had  inundated  the  whole  Church,  and  had 
nearly  choked  the  good  seed."  The  fallen  state  of  theolo- 
gical study  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  may  be  collected 
from  the  complaints  of  the  faculty  of  arts  in  the  university 
of  Paris  in  1530.  "  The  study  of  sacred  Scripture,"  they 
said,  "  is  neglected.  The  holy  Gospels  are  no  longer  cited. 
The  authority  of  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  the  other  fathers,  is  not  employed.  Theology  has 
become  nothing  but  a  sophistical  science."  Under  such 
circumstances  it  was  to  be  expected  that  erroneous  opinions 
would  become  more  or  less  prevalent  in  the  Church.  The 
holy  Scriptures  had  been  undoubtedly  given  by  God,  that 
"  the  man  of  God  might  be  perfect,  thoroughly  furnished  un- 
to all  good  works  ;"  and  when  this  divine  means  of  grace  and 
wisdom  was  neglected,  as  it  certainly  was  to  a  considerable 
degree  in  these  times,  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  the  same 
purity  of  doctrine  or  of  practice  should  exist  as  in  the  primi- 
tive ages  of  the  Church. 


la 


148  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXL 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  FOREIGN  REFORMATION. 

A.D.  1517-1839. 

The  enormous  power  usurped  by  the  popes,  and  the* 
abuses  in  its  exercise,  at  length  paved  the  way  for  its  own 
subversion,  and  for  the  Reformation.  Never  were  its  exac- 
tions and  abuses  so  excessive  as  in  the  time  of  what  is  called 
the  great  schism,  from  1369  to  1414,  when  Europe  was  di- 
vided under  the  domination  of  rival  popes.  The  papacy  was 
greatly  lowered  in  public  estimation  by  this  division  ;  and 
France,  on  one  occasion,  withdrew  itself  from  the  obedience 
of  both  popes.  The  contests  which  arose  between  the  coun- 
cils of  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basil,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  the  popes,  in  which  each  party  assert- 
ed its  own  infallibility,  and  its  superiority  to  the  other,  excit- 
ed a  spirit  of  inquiry.  "  The  reformation  of  the  Church,  in 
its  head  and  members,"  was  now  one  of  the  objects  avowed 
by  every  considerable  council  that  assembled.  Wickliffe  had, 
nnc)A  iQQA  ^"  ^^^  preceding  century,  declaimed  against 
the  popes  and  against  several  abuses  ;* 
Burnt  A.D.  and  ho  was  closely  followed  by  Huss,  and 

1415  &.  1416.  Jerome  of  Prague:  but  their  opinions  were 

mingled  with  much  that  was  exceptionable ;  and  they  seem 
to  have  been  unfitted  rightly  to  conduct  the  mighty  work  of 
reformation.  The  revival  of  learning,  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  great  forerunner  of  improvement.  Men  now 
began  to  study  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  which  had  only 
been  known  at  second-hand,  from  the  books  of  Lombard  and 
Gratian.  The  introduction  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages (entirely  unknown  during  the  middle  ages)  rendered 

*  [More  ought  to  have  been  said  of  this  great  precursor  of  the  Reforma- 
lioD.    See  his  very  interesting  and  able  Life,  bj'  Mr.  Le  Bas. — Am.  Ed.] 


A.D.  1517-1839.  LUTHER.  147 

the  study  of  Scripture  in  the  originals  possible ;  the  scholas- 
tic writers  began  to  lose  their  credit  with  men  of  education. 

At  length  the  Reformation  began  ;  but  not  as  it  could  have 
been  desired ;  not  promoted  by  the  heads  of  the  Church,  not 
regulated  by  the  decrees  of  councils.  An  individual  monk 
in  Saxony  was  made  the  involuntary  instrument  by  which 
this  great  work  was  set  on  foot.  Martin  Luther,  an  Augus- 
tinian  friar,  when  he  declaimed  against  the  scandalous  sale 
of  indulgences  by  the  papal  agent  Tetzel,  had  Til  7 

little  notion  of  opposing  the  papal  supremacy, 
or  reforming  the  Church.  He  simply  rejected  with  indigna- 
tion the  notion,  that  by  purchasing  certain  indulgences,  the 
soul  was  to  be  freed  from  torments  after  death ;  and  remind- 
ed men  that  indulgences  were  originally  nothing  more  than 
the  remission  of  canonical  penance  in  this  life.  When  as- 
sailed by  Eckius  and  many  others  with  the  most  furious  vio- 
lence, he  was  led  to  further  investigation ;  and  he  showed,  in 
his  conference  with  Eckius,  at  Leipsic,  that  the  i  f^i  q 

Roman  Church  had  not  originally  any  suprema- 
cy over  the  universal  Church.  He,  however,  testified  to  the 
pope  his  earnest  desire  for  peace,  and  submitted  himself  en- 
tirely to  him :  but  when  Luther  declined  to  retract,  without 
any  discussion,  whatever  Cardinal  Cajetan  might  censure  in 
his  doctrine,  the  pope,  notwithstanding  his  submissive  tone, 
and  protestations  that  he  did  not  intend  any  separation 
from  the  Church,  excommunicated  him  and  his  favourers, 
in  1521. 

Luther,  and  his  friends  Melancthon,  Carlostadt,  and  all 
who  were  of  the  same  sentiments,  were  thus  separated  from 
the  communion  of  the  pope,  and  of  his  adherents  in  Ger- 
many, not  voluntarily,  or  by  their  own  act.  They  were  now, 
however,  able  to  examine  and  to  speak  more  freely  ;  and  a 
strong  controversy  immediately  arose,  in  which  the  prevalent 
errors  and  superstitions  were  assailed  unsparingly ;  while 
every  effort  was  made  by  the  Romish  party  to  procure  the 
extirpation  and  destruction  of  their  opponents.      The  Lu- 


148  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXI* 

theran  party  were  protected  by  the  electors  of  Saxony  and 
Brandenburg,  and  many  other  princes  and  states  in  Ger- 
many ;  and  they  continually  called  for  the  assembling  of  a 
free  and  general  council,  to  whose  decision  they  offered 
to  submit  themselves.  In  the  meantime,  various  abuses  were 
corrected  in  the  churches  of  those  states,  and  a  temporary 
system  of  Church  government  was  established  by  the  Luther- 
ans, which  they  intended  to  be  replaced  by  the  ordinary  epis- 
copal government,  when  the  council  had  arranged  their  dis- 
putes, and  they  should  be  united  again  to  the  Church.  But 
Providence  forbade  the  accomplishment  of  their  wishes  :  an 
arrangement,  which  the  contending  parties  had  come  to  in 
the  diet  or  parliament  of  Spires,  in  1526,  and  which  left  the 
Lutheran  states  free  to  regulate  their  own  ecclesiastical  affairs 
until  the  general  council  could  be  called  together,  was  set 

1^2Q  aside  by  a  new  diet  at  the  same  place,  in  which 
*  all  alterations  were  prohibited  by  a  majority  of 
votes.  The  Lutheran  princes  and  states  entered  a  protest 
against  this  edict,  and  from  this  they  were  termed  Pro- 
testants. The  term  Protestant,  therefore,  does  not  proper- 
ly signify  a  protest  against  the  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
but  against  the  edict  of  Spires.  It  belongs  properly  to  the 
Lutherans,  by  whom  in  fact  it  is  claimed,  as  being  peculiar- 
ly their  own  ;  while  the  Church  of  England  has  never  ap- 
plied the  term  to  herself,  nor  ever  used  it  in  any  of  her  for- 

-  _o^  mularies.  In  the  following  year  a  diet  was  con- 
vened at  Augsburg,  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
v.,  with  the  intent  of  terminating  these  differences.  The 
Lutheran  party  here  presented  their  confession  of  faith, 
which  has  since  been  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  ;  and 
which  contains  a  brief  summary  of  the  Christian  doctrine, 
together  with  their  objections  to  the  chief  errors  and  super- 
stitions ihen  prevalent.  The  Confession  of  Augsburg  pro- 
fesses that  there  is  nothing  in  it  "  which  differs  from  the 
Scriptures  or  the  Roman  Church.^*  It  declares  that  they 
"differ  concerning   no   article   of  faith  from   the   Catholic 


l.D.  1517-1839.  LUTHERANS.  149 

Church,  but  only  omit  some  abuses."  "  There  is  no  design," 
they  said,  "  to  deprive  tlie  bishops  of  their  authority  ;  but 
this  only  is  sought,  that  the  Gospel  be  permitted  to  be  purely 
taught,  and  a  (e\v  observances  be  relaxed." 

Notwithstanding  this  moderation,  the  diet,  by  order  of  the 
emperor,  condemned  the  Protestants,  and  ordered  them  to 
submit  themselves  to  the  pope.  They  were  then  obliged  to 
confederate  in  their  ov/n  defence,  in  the  league  of  Smalcald, 
and  by  this  means  they  obtained  toleration  from  the  emperor. 
Various  controversies  and  conferences  afterwards  took  place 
between  the  opposed  parties,  especially  in  1541,  at  Ratisbon, 
when  many  of  the  points  of  difference  were  removed,  and 
both  parties,  including  the  papal  nuncio,  were  in  great  hopes 
of  an  entire  as^reement. 

o 

The  Protestants  had  continued  their  appeal  to  a  free 
general  council  from  the  year  1520  ;  but  the  pope,  who  had 
usurped  for  some  centuries  past  the  privilege  of  assembling 
such  councils,  refused  to  do  so  in  the  present  instance,  except 
in  places  where  there  was  no  security  for  the  safety  of  the  Pro- 
testants. The  pope  at  length  fixed  on  Trent  as  the  place  of 
meeting ;  and  when  the  Protestants  objected  to  it,  on  various 
grounds,  the  emperor  and  pope  conspired  to  crush  them  by 
force.  Accordingly,  Charles  V.  declared  war  against  them, 
and  overthrew  them  in  the  battle  of  Muhlberg.  tsa? 

In  the  mean  time,  the  council  of  Trent  had  met 
in  1545  ;  and  having  decided  several  points  in  controversy  in 
the  absence  of  the  Protestants,  had  been  prorogued  in  1547. 
The  emperor,  therefore,  being  unable  to  compel  the  Protest- 
ants to  send  deputies,  was  obliged  to  be  satisfied  with  issuing 
a  formulary  of  faith  and  discipline,  called  The  Interim;  in 
which  the  chief  points  permitted  to  the  Lutherans  were  the 
marr/age  of  the  clergy,  and  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  sacra- 

ment.     When  the  council  again  assembled,  the  ,__, 

„    f  1    ,        .  A.D.  1551. 

Protestants  were  compelled   to  send  deputies 

there ;  but  when  they  required  that  the  articles  already  de- 

cided  by  forty  or  fifty  bishops  at  Trent  should  be  re-examin- 

13* 


Ibb  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXI. 

ed,  they  were  not  listened  to.  They  were  consequently 
oblicred  to  withdraw  from  the  council,  and  to  retain  their  own 
observances,  without  any  hope  of  reconciliation  with  the 
Church.  They  were  enabled  to  mantaiQ  their  religious  liber- 
ty by  the  advantages  gained  over  the  emperor  by  the  Elector 

-.r-cf         Maurice  of  Saxony,  which  led  to  the  pacifica- 
tion  of  Passau,  by   which   the    religion  and 
liberties  of  the  Protestants  were  secured  from  further  molest- 
ation. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Reformation,  as  established  by  Lu- 
ther and  Melancthon,  spread  itself  widely.  Denmark,  Nor- 
way, and  Sweden,  together  with  a  great  part  of  Germany, 
embraced  it.  Monasteries  were  suppressed  ;  purgatory,  in- 
dulgences, invocation  of  saints,  worship  of  pictures  and  re- 
lics, flagellations,  communion  in  one  kind  only,  rosaries,  scap- 
ularies,  and  a  number  of  other  errors  and  superstitions,  dis- 
appeared.  The  Scriptures  Avere  translated  afresh,  and  read 
by  all  the  people.  Divine  service  was  celebrated  in  a  known 
language,  and  sermons  were  frequently  delivered.  Episco- 
pacy was  never  rejected  by  the  Lutherans;  they  even  retain 
the  form  of  that  ecclesiastical  government  in  several  coun- 
tries,  and  it  is  said  that  their  bishops  in  Sweden  are  validly 
ordained. 

It  is  to  be  lamented,  however,  that  the  Lutherans  after  a 
time  forgot  that  their  system  was  merely  provisional,  and  de- 
signed only  to  last  till  a  general  council  could  be  lawfully 
assembled.  They  then  began  to  pretend  that  their  ancestors 
had  separated  voluntarily  from  the  western  Church,  and  jus- 
tified this  act  by  reasons  which  sanctioned  schism  and  separa- 
tion generally.  In  the  seventeenth  century  there  were  many 
learned  men  amongst  them  ;  but  they  were  much  troubled  by 
religious  parties,  and  were  threatened  with  destruction  in  the 
war  which  was  waged  against  them  for  thirty  years  by  the 
emperors  and  the  Romish  party,  and  which  was  at  length 

ifidR       terminated  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia.     In  the 
middle  of  the  following  century,  a  spirit  of  false 


A.D.  1517-1839.  REFORMED.  151 

liberality  and  scepticism  began  to  infect  the  Lutheran  commu- 
nities. The  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  other  formularies 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  to  which  their  ministers  had  sub- 
scribed, lost  their  authority,  and  an  unbounded  freedom  of 
opinion  on  all  points  was  encouraged.  The  result  was,  the 
rise  of  a  party  headed  by  the  notorious  i-'^^  17Q1 

Semler,  who,  under  the  mask  of  Chris- 
tianity, explained  away  all  the  doctrines  of  revelation,  de- 
nied the  miracles  and  other  facts  of  sacred  history,  and  sub- 
verted the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Bible.  This 
infidelity  became  dreadfully  prevalent  among  the  Protestants 
of  Germany  and  Denmark  in  the  course  of  the  last  and  pre- 
sent centuries  ;  the  universities  were  full  of  it,  the  ministers  of 
religion  tainted  with  it ;  and  the  Lutheran  faith  seems  under 
an  eclipse,  from  whence  we  fervently  pray  that  it  may  be  de- 
livered. 

It  is  now  time  to  consider  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland, 
France,  and  the  United  Provinces.  Zuingle,  a  clergyman  in 
Switzerland,  from  the  year  1519  preached  in  the  church  at 
Zurich  against  the  corruptions  of  that  period  ;*  but  after  some 
time  he  was  treated  as  a  heretic  by  the  adherents  of  the 
pope ;  and  had  he  not  been  protected  by  the  magistrates, 
would  have  fallen  a  sacrifice  to  their  rage.  A  reformation 
then  took  place  in  Switzerland,  which  was  carried  too  far  in 
some  respects  ;  and  on  the  subject  of  the  sacraments  especial- 
ly, Zuingle  was  severely  condemned  by  Luther  for  consider- 
ing the  eucharist  a  mere  sign  of  our  Lord's  body.  His  views 
on  baptism  were  also  very  defective.  Some  years  after  his 
death,  Calvin,  a  man  of  abilities  and  learning,  obtained  a 
vast  influence  among  the  reformed  in  Switzerland,  France, 

Holland,    Germany,  &c.     He  was   called  to  ...^ 

^  ,,.,,.  ^1  .  .        A.D.  1541. 

Geneva   by  the  mhabitants  of  that  city,   and 

became    their   pastor.       His    well  known  doctrinal    system 

*  [Zuing  c's  stand,  as  a  Scriptural  teacher,  in  opposition  to  the  prevalent 
errors  both  of  doctrine  and  practice,  had  been  taken  before  Luther's  open 
hostilities ;  even  as  early  -is  1510. — Am.  Ed.] 


152  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTOEY.  CH»  XXI. 

of  irrespective  election  and  irresistible  grace  obtained  a  wide 
currenc3\  His  views  on  the  eucharist  were  apparently  very 
much  more  sound  than  those  of  Zuingle.  He  was  the  foun. 
der  of  the  Presbyterian  system  of  Church  government. 

In  France,  the  doctrines  of  Luther  obtained  adherents 
very  early;  but  their  professors  were  most  bitterly  perse- 
cuted for  a  long  series  of  years.  They  were  favoured  by 
many  of  the  nobility,  and  headed  by  the  Queen  of  Navarre, 
and  afterwards  by  her  son  Henry  IV.  of  France.  A  league 
was  formed  for  their  extirpation  by  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Guises;  and,  in  1572,  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  com- 
manded by  Charles  IX.,  destroyed  many  of  their  leaders  and 
a  vast  multitude  of  the  people.  At  length,  after  much  cruel 
^>Qj^  persecution,  they  obtained  toleration  by  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  The  reformed  party  in  France 
at  that  time  followed  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  and  Beza  his 
coadjutor.  They  continued  to  exist  during  the  seventeenth 
century ;  but  in  the  year  1685,  Louis  XIV.  revoked  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  and  they  were  then  compelled  either  to  emigrate, 
to  conform  to  the  Church  of  France,  or  to  conceal  themselves. 
They  have  latterly  become  a  small  and  feeble  party. 

The  persecutions  of  the  Spanish  government  for  the  sake 
of  religion,  obliged  the  seven  United  Provinces  of  Holland 
to  arm  in  their  own  defence  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century ;  and  after  a  desperate  struggle,  they  succeeded  in 
obtaining  civil  and  religious  freedom.  They  also  adopted  the 
doctrines  of  Calvin ;  but  in  the  following  century  they  were 
torn  by  controversies  between  his  followers  and  those  of  Ar- 
minius. 

It  may  be  observed  in  general  of  the  reformed  commu- 
nities in  Switzerland,  France,  and  the  United  Provinces, 
that  they  have  too  generally  fallen  away  from  the  doctrines 
originally  believed  by  them,  into  the  Socinian  or  Arian 
heresies. 

It  remains  now  to  notice  briefly  a  few  of  the  principal 
leaders  of  the  Reformation  on  the  continenL 


A.D.  1517-1839.  LUTHER.  153 

Martin  Luther  was  born  in  Saxony,  in  1483  ;  and  having 
been  early  instructed  in  letters,  he  went  to  the  university  of 
Erfurt,  where  he  studied  the  classics,  the  Aristotelic  philo- 
sophy, and  the  civil  law,  with  the  intent  of  advancing  him- 
self at  the  bar ;  but  he  was  diverted  from  this  intention  by 
the  following  accident.  As  he  was  walking  with  a  friend 
one  day  in  the  fields,  he  was  struck  by  lightning,  which 
threw  him  to  the  ground,  and  which  killed  his  companion  at 
his  side.  This  circumstance  so  profoundly  affected  him,  that, 
without  communicating  his  design  to  his  friends,  he  imme- 
diately entered  the  order  of  Augustinian  friars.  Here  he 
applied  himself  closely  to  the  study  of  the  scholastic  writers, 
and  afterwards  to  that  of  the  Bible  ;  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1507,  after  which  he  was  chosen  by  the  elector  of  Saxony 
to  a  professorship  in  his  new  university  of  Wittemburg. "  In 
1510  he  was  appointed  by  his  order  to  go  to  Rome  to  plead 
their  cause,  on  occasion  of  a  dispute  with  their  general ;  and 
this  afforded  him  an  opportunity  to  see  and  condemn  the  gross 
corruptions  and  scandals  of  all  sorts  in  that  city  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  Tetzcl  began  the  scandalous  sale  of  indulgences  in 
Germany,  and  promised  remission  of  all  past  and  future  sins 
for  money,  that  Luther  was  led  to  examine  deeply  into  the 
existing  abuses.  He  had,  however,  no  intention  of  separating 
from  the  communion  of  the  Church  ;  he  repeatedly,  in  the 
course  of  four  years,  between  1517  and  1521,  declared  that 
he  was  ready  to  be  silent  and  to  submit  himself  to  the  judg- 
ment of  bishops,  or  of  the  Roman  see,  provided  that  his 
adversaries  were  also  commanded  to  be  silent.  Even  when 
he  found  that  the  pope  was  under  the  influence  of  his  personal 
enemies,  he  did  not  reject  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church,  but 
appealed  to  the  next  general  council ;  and,  in  fine,  he  and 
his  friends  were  expelled  from  the  communion  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  a  very  unjustifiable  manner,  and  did  not  volun- 
tarily forsake  it. 

In  1521  Luther  was  called  to  the  diet  of  Worms  by  the 
emperor,   to  ascertain  whether  he  really  held  the  errors  im- 


154  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  Cfl.  XXI. 

puted  to  him.  His  friends  were  very  reluctant  that  he  should 
attend  the  diet,  fearing  that,  in  spite  of  the  emperor's  safe 
conduct,  he  might  be  seized  and  put  to  death  by  his  enemies ; 
but  Luther  said,  "  I  am  lawfully  called  to  appear  in  that 
city,  and  thither  will  I  go,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  though 
as  many  devils  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  houses  were  there 
combined  against  me."  In  this  diet  Luther  firmly  refused  to 
retract  his  doctrines,  unless  they  were  proved  contrary  to  the 
word  of  God  ;  and  being  dismissed  unhurt,  he  was  presently 
seized  and  hid  in  the  castle  of  Wartburg  by  his  friend  the 
elector  of  Saxony ;  fo#  a  severe  edict  had  been  issued 
against  him  by  the  diet  immediately  after  he  had  departed. 
In  this  solitude  Luther  began  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
the  vernacular  language,  and  composed  several  books  in  de- 
fence of  his  doctrines.  In  1522  he  returned  to  Wittemburg 
to  check  the  excesses  of  Carlostadt,  who  had  broken  the 
images  of  saints,  and  was  proceeding  with  reforms  indis- 
creetly and  irregularly.  Soon  after,  great  part  of  the  Bible 
was  published,  and  had  much  effect  in  promoting  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation  throughout  Germany.  From  this  time 
Luther  continued  to  reside  at  Wittemburg,  and  was  the 
head  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany.  He  composed  com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible  ;  was  always  vehemently  opposed  to 
the  papal  authority,  which  he  regarded  as  an  anti-christian 
usurpation ;  and  died  in  1546,  in  the  sixty-second  year  of 
his  age. 

Philip  Melancthon,  a  friend  of  Luther,  and  who  suc- 
ceeded at  his  death  to  the  chief  influence  amongst  the  Pro- 
testant party  in  Germany,  was  born  in  1495,  and  was  distin- 
guished at  an  early  age  by  his  attainments  in  every  sort  of 
literature  ;  so  that,  in  1518,  when  only  twenty-three  years  of 
age,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittemburg, 
where  he  contracted  a  close  intimacy  with  Luther,  and  was 
-^.Q  converted  to  his  opinions  by  the  disputation 
wliich  took  place  betwen  Luther  and  Eckius. 
Melancthon,  in   1520,   read  lectures  on  St.  Paul's  epistles, 


A.D.  1517-1839.  CALVIN.  155 

which  were  highly  approved  by  Luther,  and  printed.  He 
afterwards  drew  up  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  the 
Apology  or  defence  of  that  confession,  which  became  the 
standards  of  doctrine  among  the  Lutheran  party.  He  was 
remarkable  for  his  moderation;  was  always  most  desirous 
that  the  Church  should  be  re-united  ;  and  was  ready  to  make 
considerable  sacrifices  in  order  to  attain  so  desirable  an  ob- 
ject. He  wished  the  authority  of  bishops  to  be  preserved, 
and  would  even  have  been  contented  to  allow  some  authority 
to  the  see  of  Rome  :  but  his  views  were  far  too  moderate  to 
satisfy  the  papal  party;  and  the  Lutherans  had  been  too  se» 
verely  persecuted  to  regard  them  with  much  favour.  Me<- 
lancthon  wrote  much  in  defence  of  Luther,  and  against  the 
Romish  errors ;  and  died  in  1560. 

John  Ca-lvin  was  born  in  France,  in  1509,  and  studied  at 
the  university  of  Paris.  The  discipline  of  the  Church  at 
that  time  was  so  relaxed,  that  although  he  was  not  in  sacred 
orders,  he  had  been  presented  successively  to  three  benefices 
when  he  was  but  twenty  years  old.  Having  studied  the 
Scriptures,  and  becoming  alive  to  the  errors  and  superstitions 
then  prevalent,  he  resolved  to  relinquish  the  design  of  taking 
holy  orders,  and  to  apply  himself  to  the  law ;  on  which  he 
resigned  his  benefices.  His  studies  led  him  to  embrace  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  a  violent  persecution  aris- 
ing against  all  who  "  were  of  that  way"  in  France,  he  was 
compelled  to  fly  for  his  life  into  Switzerland,  where,  in  1535, 
he  published  his  Institution,*  as  an  apology  for  those  who 
were  burned  for  their  religion  in  France.  The  next  year,  as 
he  passed  through  Geneva,  the  citizens  of  that  town  com- 
pelled him  to  be  their  pastor  and  professor  of  divinity;  but, 
in  consequence  of  his  resolution  to  put  a  stop  to  the  immo- 
ralities and  factions  of  that  place,  by  enforcing  a  rigorous 
discipline,  he  was  banished  from  Geneva.  He  was  again  re., 
called  in  1541,  when  he  established  a  form  of  Church  disci- 

*  [Namely,  a  systematic  exhibition  of  religious  truth,  according  to  th« 
views  of  those  who  were  persecuted  as  heretics. — Am.  Ed.] 


156  ECCLESIASTICAL  mSTORT.  CH.  XXI. 

pline,  and  a  consistory,  invested  with  power  to  inflict  canom- 
cal  censures  and  excommunications,  to  which  the  magis- 
trates and  people  of  Geneva  promised  obedience.  Calvin 
was  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  common  errors  and  super- 
stitions, and  caused  Servetus,  who  bhisphemed  against  the 
Holy  Trinity,  to  be  put  to  death.  He  wrote  many  commen- 
taries on  Scripture.  His  influence  was  widely  extended 
throughout  the  reformed  communities  by  his  correspondence. 
Calvin  was  a  man  of  great  genius^  considerable  learning,  and 
of  irreproachable  private  character  ;  but  of  a  zeal  which  was 
too  little  under  the  guidance  of  charity.  His  position,  as  the 
minister  of  the  people  at  Geneva,  was  certainly  an  irregu- 
larity and  anomaly,  as  he  had  never  received  holy  orders. 
It  was  only  excusable  under  the  difficulties  of  the  times, 
when  the  bishops  of  the  Continent  were  too  generally  under 
the  influence  of  the  pope,  and  the  adherents  of  the  Reforma- 
tion were  unjustly  cast  out  of  the  Church,  and  treated  as 
heretics.  It  seems  to  have  been  held  by  many  persons,  and 
not  without  some  grounds  of  probability,  that  in  such  an  ex- 
treme case,  a  Christian  community  might  constitute  pastors ; 
although  we  cannot  feel  certain  that  divine  grace  accompa- 
nies such  ministrations.  It  was,  perhaps,  a  reliance  on  the 
uncovenanted  mercies  of  God,  which  consoled  many  pious 
men  in  the  unavoidable  absence  of  that  lawful  ordinary 
ministry,  which  was  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  which 
has  continued  by  successive  ordinations  in  all  ages.  Calvin 
died  in  1564. 

Ulric  Zuingle  was  born  in  Switzerland,  in  1484,  and 
studied  at  Basil  and  Vienna;  after  which  he  received  holy 
orders,  and  became  successively  pastor  of  Glaris,  and  preach- 
er at  the  abbey  of  Einsidlen.  Having  diligently  studied 
Scripture,  the  fathers,  and  schoolmen,  he  began  to  see  the  cor- 
ruptions so  generally  prevalent;  and  he  addressed  himself, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  bishop  of  Constance,  and  the  cardi- 
nal  bishop  of  Sion,  urging  them  to  reform  the  Swiss  churches. 
Being  appointed,  in  1519,  to  the  principal  church  in  Zurich, 


h.  D.  1530-1839.  zuiNGLE.  157 

he  declaimed  ygainst  the  sale  of*  indulgences,  and  against 
other  common  errors.  Controversies  ensued  between  Zuin- 
gle  and  the  vicar-general  of  the  bishop  of  Constance,  who 
accused  him  of  heresy  and  sedition  to  the  magistrates  of 
Zurich.  Zuingle  and  his  friends  declared  "  that  they  did 
not,  either  in  act  or  intention,  separate  from  the  Church." 
Zuingle  was  again  accused,  in  1522  and  1523,  by  the  Romish 
party,  as  a  heretic ;  but  he  overcame  his  adversaries  in  con- 
troversy ;  and  the  magistrates  of  Zurich  decreed  that  he 
should  not  be  molested,  and  that  the  clergy  should  preach 
nothing  except  what  could  be  proved  from  holy  Scripture. 
After  this,  Zuingle  and  his  friends  being  entirely  separated 
from  communion  by  the  Romish  party,  they  effected  various 
reforms  and  changes  in  rites ;  and  they  became  involved  in 
controversy  with  Luther  on  the  subject  of  the  holy  eucharist. 
Zuingle  seems  to  have  fallen  into  the  error  of  Berengar*  on 
this  point ;  but  it  was  hoped  for  a  long  time,  that  he  and  his 
adherents  might  be  brought  to  a  sounder  mind.  Conferences 
with  this  object  continued  long  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1531. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ON  THE  BRITISH  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  1530-1839. 

The  Churches  of  Britain  or  England  had  now  existed  for 
.lore  than  thirteen  hundred  years.  Originally  (for  six  bun- 
Jred  years)  independent  of  the  Roman  see,  as  being  beyond 
die  limits  of  that  patriarchate,  they  had  gradually  become 
subject  to  its  jurisdiction.  The  invasion  of  Britain  by  the 
Saxons,  and  the  subsequent  mission  of  St.  Augustine,  by  Pope 
Gregory,  afforded  the  opportunity  for  extending  the  Roman 

[*  See  notes  ou  pasres  78,  aud  81. — Am.  Ed.] 
"14 


158  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOKY  .  CH.  XXII. 

power;  and  Augustine  was  sent  the  pall,  the  embiem  of  au- 
thority, as  vicar  of  the  holy  see.  For  many  ages,  however, 
we  hear  little  of  any  exercise  of  jurisdiction  by  the  popes  in 
680  England :  the  English  bishops  and  kings  did  not 
permit  appeals  to  Rome.  When  Wilfrid,  bishop 
of  York,  appealed  against  an  English  synod  which  had  de- 
posed him  from  his  diocese,  and  obtained  a  decree  in  his  fa- 

A  D  1073  ^'^^^  ^^°^^  ^''^  P"P^»  ^hat  decree  was  disregarded 
in  England.  At  length,  from  the  time  of  Gregory 
VII.,  the  papal  jurisdiction  was  pushed  into  England,  as  it 
was  into  other  countries;  legates  made  frequent  visits,  held 
councils,  exacted  subsidies.  Appeals,  dispensations,  man- 
dates,  reserves,  annates,  bulls,  and  all  the  other  inconvenien- 
ces of  papal  usurpation,  followed  each  other  in  rapid  suc- 
cession ;  and  for  four  centuries,  no  country  in  Europe  suf- 
fered more,  and  with  greater  reluctance,  than  England.  But 
the  popes  and  the  kings  of  England  had,  after  much  disputa- 
tion, made  their  agreement,  and  the  Church  was  their  prey. 

Religion  had  become  deteriorated  in  England,  as  well  as 
in  the  remainder  of  the  western  Church.  A  spirit  of  oppo- 
sition  to  prevailing  errors  had  been  excited  by  Wickliffe ; 
but  he  and  his  followers,  the  Lollards,  advocated  several 
erroneous  and  seditious  opinions :  they  were  condemned  by 
the  clergy,  and  persecuted  by  the  state.  The  Scriptures, 
however,  were  translated  by  Wickliffe;  and  thus  the  way 
was  prepared  for  religious  improvement. 

The  scruples  of  Henry  VIII.  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  his 
marriage  with  Catharine,  the  widow  of  his  elder  brother,  led 
ultimately  to  the  removal  of  the  papal  power  in  England, 
and  to  the  Reformation.  Henry  in  1526  commenced  nego- 
tiations with  the  pope,  for  the  dissolution  of  his  marriage, 
requesting  that  the  papal  dispensation  by  which  it  had  been 
contracted  might  be  examined,  or  declared  invalid.  But  the 
pope,  under  the  influence  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  the 
nephew  of  Catharine,  protracted  the  affair,  by  various  expe- 
dients, for  six  years.     At  length  Henry,  wearied  by  the  arts 


A.D.   1530-1839.  BRITISH  REFORMATION.  159 

and  chicanery  of  the  court  of  Rome,  had  recourse  to  an  ex- 
pedient, first  suggested  by  Cranmer,  a  learned  doctor  of  Cam- 
bridge, who  was  soon  after  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
namely,  to  consult  all  the  universities  of  Europe  on  the  ques- 
tion, "whether  the  papal  dispensation  for  such  a  marriage 
was  valid ;"  and  to  act  on  their  decision  without  further  ap- 
peal to  the  pope.  The  question  was  accordingly  put,  and 
decided  in  the  negative  by  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, Paris,  Bologna,  Padua,  Orleans,  Anglers,  Bourges, 
Toulouse,  6z;c.,  and  by  a  multitude  of  theologians  and  can- 
onists. Henry  now  being  satisfied  that  his  marriage  with 
Catharine  had  been  null  and  void  from  the  beginning,  pri- 
vately married  Anna  Boleyn  ;  and  the  convo-  ^-„2 
cation  of  the  Church  of  England  immediately 
afterwards  declared  his  former  marriage  null,  and  approved 
that  recently  contracted. 

In  1532  and  1533  the  king  and  parliament  of  England 
suppressed  by  law  various  usurped  or  superfluous  privileges 
of  the  popes.  First-fruits,  tenths,  pensions,  annuities,  pay- 
ments for  bulls,  palls,  &c.,  censes,  portions,  Peter's-pence, 
and  all  the  other  pecuniary  exactions  of  the  court  of  Rome, 
were  abolished.  Bulls  of  institution  to  bishoprics  or  arch- 
bishoprics, and  palls,  were  no  longer  to  be  sought  from  Rome. 
The  prelates  were,  as  formerly,  to  be  elected  and  ordained 
in  England.  All  appeals  to  Rome  in  ecclesiastical  causes 
were  suppressed ;  and  every  cause  was  to  be  determined 
finally  in  England,  according  to  ancient  custom.  All  that 
great  multiplicity  of  licenses,  dispensations,  compositions,  fa- 
culties, grants,  rescripts,  delegacies,  dec,  by  which  the  pon- 
tiffs had  so  grievously  enervated  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
and  enriched  themselves,  was  put  an  end  to.  Dispensations 
were  in  future  only  to  be  issued  by  the  primate  of  England. 
Thus  the  various  branches  of  the  papal  jurisdiction,  most 
of  which  had  been  usurped  within  the  four  preceding  centu- 
ries, were  removed.  The  Church  of  England  acquiesced  in 
these  proceedings,  well  knowing  that  no  principle  of  justice 


150  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXII. 

or  of  right  was  infringed  by  them ;  and  in  fine,  the  question 
being  proposed  to  the  bishops  and  clergy  assembled  in  the 
_„  provincial    synods   of  Canterbury  and  York, 

"  whether  the  bishop  of  Rome  has,  in  the  word 
of  God,  any  greater  jurisdiction  in  the  realm  of  England 
than  any  other  foreign  bishop;"  it  was  determined  in  the 
negative.  The  universities,  chapters,  monks,  friars,  6zc., 
throughout  the  kingdom,  declared  their  assent;  one  bishop 
only  (Fisher)  refused  to  unite  in  this  general  decision  of  the 
Church  of  England ;  and  thus  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of 
the  pope  over  England  was  regularly  and  lawfully  suppressed. 
The  door  was  now  open  for  gradual  improvement ;  and 
though  the  king  remained  attached  to  some  errors  and  abu- 
ses, several  valuable  reforms  were  made  during  the  remainder 
of  his  reign.  In  1537  and  1543,  the  convocation  published 
two  formularies  of  doctrine,  entitled  the  Institution  of  a 
Christian  Man,  and  the  Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition; 
'n  which  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  was  disclaimed.  Indul- 
gences were  rejected  by  the  same  authority,  together  with  all 
kneeling,  bowing,  and  offering  to  images,  and  all  worship 
before  them  was  to  be  directed  to  God  only,  not  to  the  image 
or  the  saint  represented.  Images  abused  by  pilgrimages,  and 
other  special  honours,  were  removed ;  prayer  to  saints  was 
prohibited,  and  their  invocation  only  permitted  under  certain 
limitations.  The  superstitious  use  of  relics  was  discouraged  ; 
and  various  other  superstitions,  such  as  using  gospels  for 
charms,  drinking  holy  water  for  the  cure  of  diseases,  die, 
were  prohibited.  These  were  great  advances  and  improve- 
ments ;  but  the  king  opposed  a  full  reformation,  and  in  the 
parliament  of  1539  made  penal  laws  against  any  who  re- 
jected the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  and  some  other  points.  The  convocation  of  the  cler- 
gy in  1531  had  acknowledged  the  king  to  be  "  head  of  the 
Church  of  England,  as  far  as  it  is  allowable  by  the  law  of 
Christ."  In  virtue  of  this  office,  which  Henry  seems  to  have 
understood  in  a  different  sense  from  that  of  the  convocation, 


A.9.  1530-1839.  BRITISH   REFORMATION.  161 

he  appointed  Lord  Cromwell  his  vicar-general,  and  visitor 
of  monasteries ;  and  a  visitation  of  these  institutions  having 
been  set  on  foot,  they  were  found  to  be  so  generally  corrupt 
and  fallen  from  their  rule,  that  they  were  all  suppressed, 
and  their  enormous  revenues  were  given  to  the  king,  with  a 
portion  of  which  he  founded  six  new  bishoprics  in  England. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  in  1547,  and  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.,  the  work  of  reformation  proceeded  freely. 
The  communion  was  now  given  in  both  kinds  to  the  laity, 
according  to  our  Lord's  institution  and  the  practice  of  the 
Catholic  Church ;  images  and  relics,  so  long  abused  to  su- 
perstition, were  removed ;  the  clergy  were  permitted  to  marry ; 
and  the  public  prayers  were  translated  from  the  old  Latin 
offices  of  the  English  Church,  with  various  improvements 
from  the  Greek  and  Oriental  liturgies.  These  reforms  were 
made  by  the  united  authority  of  the  bishops,  or  convocation, 
and  the  parliament. 

The  popes  had  thought  proper  to  consider  England  in  a 
state  of  schism  and  separation  from  the  Church,  as  soon  as 
their  own  usurped  jurisdiction  was  abolished.  The  Church 
and  realm  of  England  repeatedly  disclaimed  any  intention  of 
separating  from  the  communion  of  the  Roman,  French,  Span- 
ish, and  other  western  Churches,  subject  to  the  pope ;  they 
never  thought  of  refusing  communion  to  the  members  of 
those  Churches :  but  the  popes  and  their  party  in  the  West 
still  adhered  obstinately  to  the  mistaken  notion,  that  the 
bishop  of  Rome  was,  by  divine  right,  head  of  the  universal 
Church ;  and  therefore  they  looked  on  the  conduct  of  the 
English  Church,  in  removing  his  power,  as  sinful ;  and  when 
the  pope  deposed  and  excommunicated  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
adherents,  they  considered  England  as  out  of  the  pale  of  the 
Church.  There  was  a  party  in  England  which  secretly  held 
the  same  views,  and  were  attached  to  the  old  superstitions, 
though  they  did  not  venture  to  separate  from  the  Church. 

On  the  death  of  Edward  in  1553,  and  the  accession  of 
Mary,  who  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  the   pope,  the  popish 

14* 


162  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  IXII, 

pai'ty  obtained  the  ascendant  for  a  time,  and  involved  the 
Church  in  confusion  and  misery.  No  fewer  ih^n  fourteen  of 
the  bishops,  who  were  favourable  to  the  Reformation,  were 
expelled  from  their  sees,  by  intimidation,  by  commissions  ir- 
regularly appointed  by  the  crown,  or  by  mere  intrusion  of 
persons  who  had  been  schismatically  appointed.  They  were 
replaced  by  others,  Avho  were  constituted  by  the  pope,  in  op- 
position to  the  laws  and  regulations  approved  by  the  Church 
of  England  during  the  two  preceding  reigns,  and  in  violation 
of  its  liberties.  Independently  of  which,  the  pope  acted 
without  any  right  of  jurisdiction  whatever ;  for  his  jurisdic- 
tion had  been  many  years  before  regularly  and  validly  sup- 
pressed by  the  Church  of  England,  by  whose  permission 
alone  it  was  at  any  time  lawful ;  and  the  Church  had  never, 
by  any  decree  of  its  convocations,  revised  or  created  again 
that  jurisdiction ;  but  the  popish  party  merely  implored  the 
papal  absolution  for  their  schism.  Consequently,  all  acts 
performed  by  the  pope  or  his  authority  at  this  time  were  un- 
authorised and  null.  At  the  same  time,  an  obsequious  par- 
liament repealed  all  the  laws  in  favour  of  the  Reformation ; 
and  at  their  humble  request  the  pope  granted  his  absolution  to 
the  English  nation  for  the  schism  of  which  it  had  been  guilty. 
A  most  savage  persecution  assailed  all  who  were  in  favour 
of  reformation,  and  who  rejected  the  papal  supremacy.  The 
venerable  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Bishops  Rid- 
ley, Latimer,  Hooper,  and  hundreds  of  others,  bishops,  pres- 
byters, and  pious  men  and  women,  fell  victims  to  the  ferocity 
of  the  papists,  and  attested  with  their  last  breath  their  ad- 
herence to  the  cause  of  pure  religion.  Three  thousand  of 
the  clergy  were  expelled  from  their  churches ;  multitudes  of 
confessors  were  driven  into  exile,  where  they  lived  till  the 
death  of  this  persecuting  queen  in  1558. 

The  accession  of  the  illustrious  Queen  Elizabeth  was  fol- 
lowed  by  the  restoration  of  the  Church  to  its  former  state. 
The  laws  which  had  been  formerly  made,  with  the  full  con- 
currence  of  the  Church,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  and  Edward, 


A.D     1530-1839.  ENGLISH  CHURCHES.  163 

and  which  always  remained  in  their  spiritual  obligation,  hav- 
ing never  been  condemned  by  the  Church  of  England,  were 
now  restored.  The  popish  intruders  into  English  bishoprics 
were  expelled  by  the  civil  power,  and  their  places  were  filled 
by  orthodox  prelates,  who  were  ordained  by  some  of  the 
bishops  who  had  been  persecuted  by  Mary  and  driven  into 
exile.  The  clergy  generally  approved  of  the  return  to  pure 
religion,  and  retained  their  benefices,  administering  the  sacra- 
ments and  rites  according  to  the  English  ritual.  In  1562,  the 
synod  or  convocation  of  England,  published  a  formulary  of 
doctrine,  divided  into  thirty-nine  articles,  in  which  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Catholic  faith  were  briefly  stated,  and  various 
errors  and  superstitions  of  the  Romanists  and  others  were 
rejected.  This  formulary  was  again  approved  by  the  convo- 
cation in  1571,  and  ordered  to  be  subscribed  by  all  the  clergy. 
There  was  no  schism  for  many  years  in  England :  all  the 
people  worshipped  in  the  same  churches,  and  acknowledged 
the  same  pastors.  It  is  true  that  persons  were  to  be  found, 
who  secretly  cherished  a  love  for  the  old  superstitions  and 
abuses,  and  for  the  Roman  sway.  This  was  not  to  be  won- 
dered at.  Men's  minds  will  differ  on  almost  every  subject ; 
but  more  information  would  have  probably  removed  in  the  end 
any  such  tendency. 

The  pope  was  much  annoyed  at  these  proceedings  in  Eng- 
land ;  he  took  no  decided  steps,  however,  for  some  time. 
At  last,  in  1569,  Pius  V.  issued  a  bull,  in  which  he  excom- 
municated Queen  Elizabeth  and  her  supporters,  absolved  her 
subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance,  and  bestowed  her 
dominions  on  the  king  of  Spain.  This  bull  caused  the  schism 
in  England  ;  for  the  popish  part}^,  which  had  continued  in 
communion  with  the  Church  of  England  up  to  that  time, 
during  the  eleven  past  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  now  began 
to  separate  themselves.  Bedingfield,  Cornwallis,  and  Sil- 
yarde,  were  the  first  popish  recusants;  and  the  date  of  the 
Romanists  in  England,  as  a  distinct  sect  or  community,  may 
be  fixed  in  the  year  1570.    This  separation  was  also  fomented 


164  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXII. 

by  priests  and  Jesuits,  who  were  sent  from  abroad  to  pervert 
the  people  :  but  they  did  not  succeed  to  any  great  extent.  It 
may  be  here  added,  that,  with  the  exception  of  about  six  years, 
when  a  titular  bishop,  sent  by  the  pope,  resided  in  England, 
the  Romanists  had  no  bishops  till  1685. 

The  same  year  which  witnessed  the  separation  of  the  Ro- 
manists, was  also  the  commencement  of  the  Puritan  separa- 
tion. The  origin  of  this  sect,  which  at  last  acquired  such 
power,  may  be  traced  to  some  of  the  exiles  in  the  reign  of 
Mary,  who  in  foreign  lands  imbibed  a  taste  for  the  doctrines 
and  discipline  of  Calvin  and  Zuingle,  and  who,  on  their  return, 
endeavoured  vainly  to  reform  the  Church  of  England  according 
to  those  models.  When  they  beheld  the  Reformation  re-estab- 
lished according  to  the  forms  adopted  in  the  reign  of  King  Ed- 
ward, they  became  dissatisfied  ;  and  after  much  fruitless  agita- 
tion to  alter  the  Church,  they  at  length  began  to  declaim  against 
her  as  infected  with  popish  errors  and  superstitions ;  and  affirm- 
ing episcopacy  to  be  anti-Christian,  they  separated  from  the 
Church  and  formed  conventicles,  about  1570. 

The  Church  of  England  continued  to  be  defended  by  the 
state  till  the  great  rebellion  in  1640,  when  the  king  and  par- 
liament being  at  variance,  the  Puritans,  and  a  number  of  other 
sects,  were  permitted  to  increase.  Of  these  sects,  the  prin- 
cipal were  the  Brownists  or  Independents,  and  the  Anabap- 
tists, which  had  been  set  on  foot  in  England  a  few  years  be- 
fore. The  parliament,  under  the  influence  of  the  Puritans, 
abolished  episcopacy  as  anti-Christian,  rejected  the  Liturgy, 
and  expelled  several  thousands  of  the  clergy  who  adhered  to 
the  regulations  of  the  Church  of  England,  intruding  in  their 
place  Puritans  and  other  sectarians. 

In  1660,  on  the  restoration  of  King  Charles  II.  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors,  the  Puritans  were  expelled,  and  the 
Church  was  delivered  from  persecution,  and  prospered  ex- 
ceedingly for  many  years.  Many  learned  and  great  men 
were  now  appointed  to  preside  over  the  Church,  and  the 
various  sects  of  separatists  or  dissenters  diminished.     James 


A.D.  1530-1839.       ENGLISH  CHURCH.  165 

11.  attempted,  by  many  arbitrary  and  illegal  proceedings,  to 
establish  popery,  which  excited  the  indignation  of  his  subjects 
so  strongly,  that  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  his  throne  in 
1689,  and  William  III.  of  Orange,  and  Mary,  were  declared 
king  and  queen.  On  the  refusal  of  Sancroft,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  some  other  bishops  and  clergy,  from  con- 
scientious scruples,  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  new 
government,  they  were  deprived  of  their  sees  and  benefices 
by  the  civil  power,  and  they,  with  their  adherents,  obtained 
the  name  of  Non-jurors.  Bishops  were  ordained  in  their 
places,  and  accepted  by  the  great  body  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  but  a  warm  controversy  ensued,  which,  however,  ter- 
minated in  the  gradual  return  of  the  Non-jurors  to  the 
Church. 

In  1717  a  controversy  arose  on  occasion  of  the  writings  of 
Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor,  in  which  he  maintained  that  it 
was  needless  to  believe  any  particular  creed,  or  to  be  united 
to  any  particular  Church ;  and  that  sincerity,  or  our  own  per- 
suasion of  the  correctness  of  our  opinions  (whether  well  or 
ill  founded,)  is  sufficient.  These  doctrines  were  evidently 
calculated  to  subvert  the  necessity  of  believing  the  articles 
of  the  Christian  faith,  and  to  justify  all  classes  of  schismatics 
or  separatists  from  the  Church.  The  convocation  deemed 
these  opinions  so  mischievous,  that  a  committee  was  appoint- 
ed to  select  propositions  from  Hoadly's  books,  and  to  procure 
their  censure ;  but  before  his  trial  could  take  place,  the  con- 
vocation was  prorogued  by  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  the  royal 
authority,  and  has  not  been  permitted  to  deliberate  since. 
The  temporal  government,  influenced  by  the  schismatics, 
protected  and  advanced  Hoadly  and  several  persons  of  similar 
principles.  In  1766,  Archdeacon  Blackburn,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  be  an  Arian,  anonymously  assailed  the  practice  of 
subscribing  the  Articles ;  and  in  1772  a  body  of  clergy  and 
laymen  petitioned  Parliament  to  put  an  end  to  it ;  but  their 
request  was  refused.  Many  of  these  petitioners  were  secret 
disbelievers  in  some  of  the  Christian  doctrines. 


166  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXIJ 

The  sect  of  Methodists  had  now  become  numerous.  It 
about  A  D  1740  ^^^  founded  by  Wesley  and  Whitfield,  in 
the  early  part  of  this  century.  Originally, 
they  designed  only  to  assist  the  clergy  in  preaching  to  the 
poor  in  populous  places ;  but  they  were  gradually  urged  on  to 
establish  a  sect.  It  was  not,  however,  till  after  the  death  of 
A  D    1791  Wesley  that  they  pretended  to  administer  the 

sacraments  in  their  communities,  and  became 
absolutely  separated  from  the  Church. 

The  Church  had  been  suffering  much  for  a  long  time  from 
appointments  to  its  offices  made  from  unworthy  motives. 
The  bishoprics,  and  other  dignities,  were  bestowed  by  the 
ministers  of  the  crown  on  men  distinguished  only  by  birth  or 
connexions.  Patronage,  in  general,  was  distributed  on  low 
and  worldly  considerations.  Theological  learning  received 
no  encouragement ;  and  active  zeal  was  viewed  with  jealousy, 
as  an  approximation  to  Methodism.  Prosperity  had  begun 
to  inspire  confidence,  security,  and  sloth.  The  dangers  of 
religion,  arising  from  the  French  Revolution  in  1789,  which 
let  loose  an  atheistic  spirit  throughout  the  world,  stimu- 
lated the  Church  to  renewed  exertions.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  a  great  revival  of  religious  zeal  took 
place  ;  numerous  societies  for  various  purposes  connected 
with  religion  were  instituted,  and  vigorously  supported,  though 
not  always  on  principles  accordant  with  those  of  the  Church, 
as  several  of  them  evinced  too  great  an  intimacy  with  Dis- 
senters. 

The  aspect  of  the  times  has  since  contributed  to  stimulate 
the  activity  of  the  Church.  The  weakness  of  the  temporal 
government,  and  the  influence  which  parties  hostile  to  the 
Church  have  for  the  last  twenty  years  exercised  over  it,  have 
taught  the  Church  to  depend  less  on  the  protection  of  the 
state  than  on  the  Divine  blessing  on  a  zealous  discharge  of 
pastoral  duties,  especially  by  the  inculcation  of  her  own 
sound  principles.  The  violent  hostility  which  Dissenters  and 
Romanists  have  for  some  time  exhibited  towards  the  Church 


A.D.  1530-1839.  IRISH  CHURCH.  16T^ 

of  England,  and  their  avowed,  though  fruitless,  intention  and 
-endeavours  to  destroy  her,  have  likewise  produced  most  salu- 
tary effects  in  promoting  union,  zeal,  and  attachment  to  her 
doctrines. 

The  Churches  of  Ireland  have  been  suffering  severely 
from  the  persecution  of  Romanists  for  many  years  past.  Let 
us  now  turn  to  the  history  of  these  Churches.  I  have  al- 
ready noticed  the  early  independence  of  the  Church  of  Ire- 
land, which  continued  from  the  time  of  St.  Patrick,  in  the 
fifth  century,  till  the  twelfth  century,  when  a  papal  legate 
was  appointed  in  Ireland,  and  the  archbishops  of  Ireland  for 
the  first  time  received  the  pall  from  Rome  in  1152.  This 
Church  shared  the  fate  of  others :  it  became  infected  with 
the  prevalent  superstitions.  Henry  VIII.  caused  the  papal 
jurisdiction  to  be  abolished  in  1537  by  the  parliament.  The 
bishops  and  clergy  generally  assented,  and  several  reforms 
took  place  during  this  and  the  next  reign.  In  the  time  of 
Mary,  five  of  the  bishops  favourable  to  the  Reformation  were 
irregularly  expelled  from  their  sees;  and  the  laws  made 
against  the  pope  were  repealed.  When  Elizabeth  succeeded, 
the  former  laws  were  revived,  the  papal  power  again  reject- 
ed, and  the  royal  supremac}''  and  the  English  ritual  again  in- 
troduced. These  regulations  \\%ere  approved  by  seventeen 
out  of  nineteen  Irish  bishops  in  the  parliament  of  1560,  and 
by  the  rest  of  the  bishops  and  clergy,  who  took  the  oath  of 
supremacy,  and  remained  in  the  possession  of  their  benefices. 
The  people  also  generally  acquiesced,  and  continued  to  at- 
tend  on  divine  service  for  several  years.  Two  bishops  only, 
out  of  about  twenty-six,  refused  to  acquiesce  in  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  were  driven  from  their  sees,  into  which  they  had 
been  intruded  in  the  time  of  Mary,  while  the  rightful  bishops 
were  still  living.  It  may  be  here  added,  that  in  1615  the 
Church  of  Ireland  framed  a  formulary  closely  resembling  the 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England ;  which  last,  however,  were 
adopted  as  the  confession  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  in  the  synod 
of  Dublin,  1634,  where  also  a  bod>  of  canors  was  enacted. 


iBH  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  X3CII. 

The  pope,  of  course,  regarded  these  proceedings  as  highly 
«inful ;  and  considering  the  Church  of  Ireland  as  schisma- 
tical,  he  resolved  to  induce  the  people  to  separate  from  it. 
Accordingly,  he  ordained  Creagh,  who  had  shown  some  dili- 
gence in  exhorting  the  people  to  forsake  the  obedience  of 
their  bishops  and  the  service  of  the  Church,  to  the  archbi- 
shopric of  Armagh,  although  that  see  was  already  filled  by  the 
legitimate  primate,  Loftus.  Creagh,  who  is  styled  by  the 
Romish  historians,  "  the  principal  propagator  or  restorer  of 
the  Catholic  faith  in  Ireland,"  came  over  and  perverted  some 
of  the  people.  The  pope  sent  some  other  emissaries,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  the  king  of  Spain,  to  whom  he  had  given 
the  dominions  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  excited  the  Irish  chieftains 
and  people  to  insurrection.  In  consequence,  Ireland  became 
the  scene  of  war  for  thirty  years,  in  which  the  bishops, 
Jesuits,  and  other  priests  sent  by  the  pope,  took  a  most  active 
and  leading  part.  In  this  war,  numbers  of  the  ignorant  and 
savage  people  were  exposed  to  the  arts  of  the  popish  emis- 
saries,  and  persuaded  or  forced  to  forsake  the  Church,  as  be- 
ing favoured  by  the  queen.  Let  me  mention  a  {ew  facts  in 
corroboration  of  these  statements.  In  1575,  one  of  the  Irish 
lords,  being  engaged  in  plotting  an  insurrection  against  his 
sovereign  Queen  Elizabeth,  went  to  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain, 
on  whom  Pope  Pius  V.  had  conferred  the  dominions  of  the 
queen,  and  sought  assistance  from  him  for  the  Irish  Roman- 
ists. He  then  went  to  Rome,  where,  after  some  time,  he 
obtained  from  the  pope  a  pardon  for  all  the  bands  of  robbers 
who  then  infested  Italy,  on  condition  that  they  should  under- 
take an  expedition  to  Ireland  for  the  exaltation  of  the  see  of 
Rome.  An  army  thus  composed  was  headed  by  a  titular 
popish  bishop  of  Killaloe  in  Ireland,  and  by  the  Jesuit  San- 
ders ;  and  they  landed  in  Ireland  not  long  after,  bringing  a 
bull  from  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  in  which  all  who  should  unite 
in  rebellion  against  Queen  Elizabeth  were  promised  a  plenary 
pardon  of  their  sins.  This  expedition,  however,  entirely 
failed  :  but  the  same  titular  bishop,  a  few  years  afterwards, 


A.D.  1530-1839.  IRISH  CHURCH.  169 

is  found  introducing  supplies  of  men,  money,  and  arms  from 
Spain  for  the  relief  of  the  insurgents.  Another  schismatic, 
assuming  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Armagh,  came  with 
orders  from  the  King  of  Spain  that  the  Irish  should  revolt ; 
and  having  excited  a  rebellion,  he  fell  in  battle  with  the  royal 
troops.  Ohely,  called  archbishop  of  Tuam,  Was  sent  after- 
wards, by  one  of  the  Irish  chieftains,  to  the  King  of  Spain, 
whom  he  exhorted  to  invade  and  subdue  Ireland.  When  the 
next  insurrection  broke  out,  we  find  Maceogan,  a  titular 
bishop  and  vicar  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  issuing  an  excom- 
munication against  all  who  should  give  quarter  to  the  prison- 
ers taken  from  the  queen's  army.  Maceogan  caused  all  such 
persons  to  be  put  to  death  in  his  presence ;  and  he  himself  at 
last  fell  in  battle  against  the  royal  army,  leading  a  troop  of 
horse,  with  his  sword  in  one  hand,  and  his  breviary  and  beads 
in  the  other ! 

The  ignorance  and  superstition  of  the  lower  orders  of  the 
Irish  at  this  time  made  them  unhappily  an  easy  prey  to  the 
emissaries  of  Rome,  who  came  from  Spain,  Italy,  and  Flan- 
ders,  and  vehemently  declaimed  against  the  Churches  of  Eng- 
land  and  Ireland  as  heretical.  Amongst  the  arguments  used 
to  delude  this  unhappy  people,  we  find  many  lying  wonders, 
visions,  and  miracles.  It  was  said  that  on  one  occasion  St. 
Columbkill  took  the  form  of  a  wolf,  and  carried  a  torch  into 
the  powder-magazine  of  a  garrison  of  English  "heretics," 
who  were  of  course  all  destroyed.  Another  tale  was,  that  a 
certain  *'  heretic"  converted  a  priest's  vestment  into  a  pair 
of  trousers ;  but  as  soon  as  he  had  drawn  them  on,  he  took 
fire  and  was  burned  to  ashes.  An  English  governor,  veiy 
much  hated  by  the  popish  party,  was  said  to  have  been  heard 
conversing  with  the  devil ;  presently  after,  an  explosion  was 
heard,  and  he  was  found  lying  frightfully  distorted  and  in- 
sane,  and  soon  after  died.  By  such  arguments  were  the  Irish 
taught  to  hate  their  pastors,  and  to  separate  from  their  na- 
tional  Church.  But  all  would  have  been  insufficient,  if  the 
country  had  remained  in  peaceable  subjection  to  its  sove* 

15 


170  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  OH.  XXII. 

reign ;  and  therefore  the  Popes  Pius  V.  and  Gregory  XIII. 
promoted  insurrections  in  Ireland  against  the  royal  authority ; 
and  the  people  were  compelled  by  their  chiefs  to  forsake  the 
communion  of  their  legitimate  bishops,  and  to  become  obe- 
dient  to  the  usurpers  whom  the  popes  sent  over  to  occupy  their 
places.  It  was  only  by  a  long  series  of  rebellions  that  the 
schism  in  Ireland  was  consolidated  and  became  so  widely  ex- 
tended. The  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  sufficed  for  this 
lamentable  catastrophe. 

King  James  I.  wisely  discouraged  the  Roman  schism,  and 
forbade  the  residence  of  its  bishops,  priests,  and  Jesuits,  in 
his  dominions ;  but  under  his  successor,  Charles  I.,  a  relaxa- 
tion  of  this  wholesome  severity  encouraged  the  schismatics 
to  insult  and  disturb  the  Church,  and  ultimately,  in  1641,  to 
massacre  in  cold  blood  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  of  its 
adherents,  and  to  break  into  insurrection. 

The  Church  was  now  dreadfully  persecuted  by  papists  and 
by  the  English  parliament;  but  on  the  return  of  Charles  II. 
resumed  its  rights.  Persecution  was  renewed  under  James 
II.,  in  1690,  when  the  Romish  party  obtained  power;  and  in 
the  rebellion  of  1798.  From  that  period,  the  Romish  party 
has  acquired  great  political  power,  and  the  Church  has  been 
almost  continually  persecuted,  especially  within  the  last  few 
years,  in  which  the  clergy  have  been  reduced  nearly  to  star- 
vation ;  some  have  been  murdered,  and  many  placed  in  peril 
of  their  lives.  To  add  to  their  afflictions,  the  government,  in 
1833,  suppressed  ten  of  the  bishoprics,  on  pretence  of  requir- 
ing their  revenues  for  the  support  of  ecclesiastical  buildings; 
although  the  bishops  of  Ireland,  in  a  body,  protested  against 
such  an  act,  and  offered  to  pay  the  amount  required  from  the 
incomes  of  their  sees,  provided  that  so  great  an  injury  were 
not  done  to  the  cause  of  religion. 

Scotland,  had  also  become  subject  to  the  pope  about  the 
twelfth  century ;  but  the  Reformation  was  not  so  soon  or  so 
happily  introduced  there  as  in  England.  There  is  room  for 
censure  of  both  parties  in  that  country  during  the  sixteenth 


A.D.  1530-1839.  SCOTLAND.       AMERICA.  171 

century.     The  Romish  party  exercised  cruelties  on  their  op- 
ponents, which  led  to  their  own  downfall.     The  reformed, 
headed   by  Knox,  were  turbulent  and  irregular  in  their  pro- 
ceedings.     They  at  first  adopted  a  temporary  1500 
church  government,  which  resembled  the  epis- 
£opal,  and  in  1572  agreed  that  bishops  should  be  constituted ; 
but  soon  afterwards,  under  the  influence  of  Mel-              1580 
ville,  who  had  imbibed  a  taste  for  the  Genevan 
discipline,   they  rejected  episcopacy,  and   established   pres- 
byterianism.     In  the   beginning  of  the   following  century, 
these  disorders  ceased  ;  and  in  1612  the  Church  of  Scotland 
was  provided  with  lawful  bishops  and  pastors,  who  were  con- 
secrated in  England. 

In  163S  the  presbyterian  party  again  became  predominant, 
and  took  an  oath  or  covenant  to  exterminate  episcopal  gov- 
ernme«it.     When  Charles  II.  was  restored,  the  1660 

Church  again  was  protected  by  the  state,  and 
bishops  were  consecrated  in  England  for  all  the  vacant  sees. 
A  party  of  Covenanters,  however,  separated  from  the 
Church,  esteeming  episcopacy  anti-Christian,  and  set  up  con- 
venticles ;  and  the  Scottish  bishops  having  scrupled  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  King  William,  this  monarch  caused 
the  bishops  to  be  expelled  from  their  sees,  and  1690 

episcopacy  to  be  abolished  by  act  of  parliament ; 
and  recognised  the  sectarians  as  the  established  Church. 
From  this  time  the  bishops,  and  the  rest  of  the  Scottish 
Church,  were  most  sorely  and  cruelly  persecuted  by  the 
Presbyterians,  till  1788,  when  the  penal  laws  were  repeal- 
ed ;  but  during  this  period  they  had  been  much  reduced  in 
numbers. 

A  flourishing  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church,  derived  from 
England,  exists  in  America.  When  Virginia,  and  other 
provinces  of  North  America,  were  settled  by  the  English, 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Church  took  root  there, 
and  for  a  long  time  was  supported  by  the  Society  for  Propa- 
gating the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.    Efforts  were  often  made 


172  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIIi. 

to  obtain  bishops  for  America,  but  they  failed  through  the  in- 
fluence  exerted  by  sectaries  over  the  government.  At 
length,  after  the  United  States  had  been  declared  independ- 

A  D  1784  ^"^'  ^^*  ^^^^"^T  ^^'^s  ordained  bishop  of  Con- 
necticut, by  the  primus  and  bishops  of  Scot- 
land ;  and  other  prelates  were  ordained  for  America,  in  Eng- 
land, in  1787  and  1790.*  The  American  Church  is  now 
governed  by  twenty  bishops,  and  is  rapidly  increasing.  Bish- 
ops  have  also  been  consecrated  for  many  of  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  India,  North  America,  and  the  West  Indies  ;  and 
the  limits  of  those  Churches  are  continually  enlarging. 
Many  of  the  heathen  have  been  converted  in  India  and  North 
America. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


FRUITS  OF  FAITH  IN  THE  BRITISH  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  1530-1839. 

Amongst  that  noble  army  of  martyrs,  who  in  the  sixteenth 
century  contended  even  to  death  for  Christian  truth,  against 
Romish  errors  and  superstitions,  none  merits  a  more  con- 
spicuous place  than  Nicholas  Ridley,  bishop  of  London. 
He  was  born  in  Northumberland,  in  the  beginning  of  tho 
sixteenth  century,  and  studied  at  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  distinguished  for  learning  and  piety.  He  after- 
wards pursued  his  studies  in  theology  at  Paris  and  Louvain  ; 
and  returning  back  again,  was  senior  proctor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  in  1533,  when  the  decree  was  made  by 

♦[The  Romish  episcopacy  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1789. 
The  Methodists  in  America  have  a  spurious  episcopacy,  derived  from  tho 
pretended  ordination  of  Dr.  Thomas  Coke,  a  presbyter,  by  John  Wesley, 
another  presbyter,  in  1784.  The  United  Brethren  have  also  bishops  residing 
in  America. — Am.  Ed."] 


A.D.  1530-1839.  BISHOP  RIDLEY.  173 

that  university,  as  well  as  by  all  the  Church  of  England, 
"  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  has  not,  by  the  word  of  God,  any 
jurisdiction  in  this  realm."  He  also  became  a  celebrated 
preacher,  and  was  remarkable  for  his  knowledge  of  Scrip- 
ture and  the  fathers;  so  that  in  1537  Thomas  Cranmer, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  appointed  him  one  of  his  chap- 
lains, and  associated  him  with  his  family.  Soon  after,  being 
made  vicar  of  Heme,  he  diligently  instructed  his  flock  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  and  his  preaching  attracted  multi- 
tudes of  people  from  all  the  surrounding  country.  In  1540 
he  was  elected  master  of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  where 
he  had  been  educated,  and  where  he  had  been  a  most  diligent 
student  of  the  Scriptures,  as  we  may  collect  from  the  follow* 
ing  words  of  his  Farewell ;  where,  apostrophising  his  college, 
he  says,  •'  In  thy  orchard  (the  walls,  butts,  and  trees,  if  they 
could  speak,  would  bear  me  witness,)  I  learned  without  book 
almost  all  Paul's  epistles,  and  the  canonical  epistles  too,  save 
only  the  Apocalypse :  of  which  study,  although  in  time  a 
great  part  did  depart  from  me,  yet  the  sv/eet  smell  thereof,  I 
trust,  I  shall  carry  with  me  into  heaven  ;  for  the  profit  there- 
of I  think  I  have  felt  in  all  my  lifa-time  ever  after." 

About  1545  Ridley,  by  reading  the  book  of  Bertram,*  a 
presbyter  of  the  ninth  century,  was  induced  to  forsake  the 
erroneous  opinion  of  transubstantiation ;  and  he  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  Archbishop  Cranmer  and  Bishop  Latimer 
to  the  same  mind.  In  1547  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Rochester,  and  was  most  zealous  in  promoting  the  reformation 
of  abuser ;  but  he  evinced  great  firmness  in  resisting  such  mea- 
sures as  he  judged  injurious  to  the  cause  of  justice  or  religion. 
When  he  w;as  appointed,  without  his  knowledge,  on  a  royal 
commission,  for  the  suppression  of  Clare  Hall  at  Cambridge, 
and  found,  on  examination,  that  this  society  would  not  dis- 
solve itself,  he  wrote  to  the  lord  protector,  declaring  that  his 
conscience  would  not  permit  him  to  act  further  in  the  com- 
mission ;  9-Md  thus  incurred  the  risk  of  offending  most  griev- 

•  Or  Ratramn. — Am.  Ed.] 
15* 


174  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII. 

ously  the  chief  ruler  of  England.  Such  resolution  was  an 
earnest  of  that  firmness  and  piety  with  which  he  afterwards 
faced  death  for  his  conscience  towards  God. 

On  the  deposal  of  Bonner  for  contumacy,  Ridley  was  in- 
stalled bishop  of  London  in  his  place.  In  this  high  station 
he  behaved  with  great  dignity,  benevolence,  mildness,  and 
goodness.  He  v/as  of  a  mortified  spirit,  given  to  prayer  and 
contemplation,  and  useful  and  instructive  to  all  his  family. 
His  day  was  divided  between  private  prayers :  family  devo- 
tions, in  which  he  every  day  gave  a  lecture  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament, beginning  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  giving 
to  every  one  who  could  read  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures ;  the 
despatch  of  business;  study  in  his  private  chamber;  and 
useful  discourse.  He  applied  himself  with  all  his  power  to 
reform  the  abuses  in  the  disposal  of  Church  patronage  by  the 
crown,  and  others  which  arose  from  a  spirit  of  covetousness. 
Beholding  with  grief  the  distress  of  the  poor  in  his  city,  who, 
in  consequence  of  the  suppression  of  monasteries,  from  which 
they  had  received  much  alms,  were  reduced  to  a  state  of  sad 
destitution,  he  supplicated  the  king  for  a  gift  of  the  royal 
house  at  Bridewell  as  lodgings  for  these  afflicted  people,  and 
succeeded  in  his  application. 

When  that  most  pious  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  was  af- 
flicted with  his  last  illness.  Bishop  Ridley  was  appointed  to 
preach  before  him  one  day;  and  in  his  sermon  much  recom- 
mended charity  as  a  duty  incumbent  on  all  men,  but  especial- 
ly on  those  who  are  in  high  place  and  dignity,  as  well  in 
respect  to  their  great  abilities,  as  because  they  were  bound 
to  give  examples  of  goodness  to  others.  The  same  day,  the 
king  sent  for  him,  caused  him  to  sit  in  a  chair  beside  him,  and 
would  not  permit  him  to  remain  uncovered.  Then,  after 
courteous  thanks,  he  recapitulated  the  principal  points  of  the 
sermon,  and  continued  thus:  "I  took  myself  to  be  especially 
touched  by  your  sermon,  as  well  in  regard  to  the  abilities 
which  God  hath  given  me,  as  in  regard  of  the  example  which 
of  me  he  will  require.     For  as  in  the  kingdom  I  am  next  un- 


A.D.  1530-1839.  BISHOP  RIDLEY.  175 

der  God,  so  must  I  most  nearly  approach  him  in  goodness 
and  mercy :  for  as  our  miseries  stand  most  in  need  of  help 
from  him,  so  are  we  the  greatest  debtors,  debtors  to  all  that 
are  miserable,  and  shall  be  the  greatest  accountants  of  our 
dispensation  therein.  And  therefore,  my  lord,  as  you  have 
given  me  (I  thank  you)  this  general  exhortation,  so  direct  me, 
I  entreat  you,  by  what  particular  actions  I  may  this  way  best 
discharge  my  duties."  The  bishop  remained  silent  for  some 
time ;  and  then  weeping  for  joy,  he  besought  his  majesty  for 
time  to  answer  such  a  question  ;  and  having  consulted  the 
citizens  of  London,  he  returned  again  to  the  king,  who  gave 
the  Grey-friars  as  an  hospital  for  the  support  of  infants,  the 
aged,  idiots,  and  cripples ;  St.  Bartholomew's  for  wounded 
soldiers  and  sick  persons;  and  Bridewell  for  the  correction 
of  idle  and  disorderly  persons.  These,  with  the  hospital  of  St. 
Thomas,  he  richly  endowed ;  and  when  he  had  signed  the 
instrument  to  that  effect,  he,  with  reverent  gesture  and 
speech,  thanked  God  for  prolonging  his  life  to  finish  that 
business. 

Ridley's  days  of  peace  were  now  at  an  end.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  the  persecutor  Mary,  he  was  expelled  from  his 
bishopric,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  spent  his 
time  in  pious  exercises  and  conference  with  his  fellow  prison- 
ers, exhorting  them  to  remain  steadfast  in  maintaining  the 
truth.  "Resist  the  devil,"  he  said,  "  and  he  will  flee  from 
you.  Let  us,  therefore,  resist  him  manfully ;  and,  taking 
the  cross  upon  our  shoulders,  let  us  follow  our  Captain  Christ, 
who,  by  his  own  blood,  hath  dedicated  and  hallowed  the  way 
which  leadeth  unto  the  Father,  that  is,  to  the  light  which  no 
man  can  attain, — the  fountain  of  everlasting  joys.  Let  us 
follow,  I  say,  whither  he  calleth  and  allureth  us,  that  after  all 
these  afflictions — which  last  but  for  a  moment — whereby  he 
trieth  our  faith  as  gold  by  the  fire,  we  may  everlastingly 
reign  and  triumph  with  him  in  the  glory  of  his  Father ;  and 
that  through  the  same  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  with 
the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost  be  all  honour  and  glory  now 


176  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXITI. 

and  for  ever.     Amen.     Amen."     Such  were  the  resolutions 
and  the  hopes  of  this  venerable  martyr  in  the  contemplation 
of  the  sufferings  which  were  preparing  for  him.     His  con- 
stancy was  unshaken  by  any  terrors,  or  by  the  instances  of 
weakness  which  surrounded  him.     One  of  his  own  chaplains 
who  then  fell  away,  wrote  to  Ridley  with  a  view  to  shake  his 
resolution,  and  induce  him  to  conform  to  the  Romish  errors. 
His  reply  affords  a  noble  example  of  Christian  faith  and  of 
apostolical  admonition.     "  Sir,  how  nigh  the  day  of  my  dis- 
solution and  departure  out  of  this  world  is  at  hand,  I  cannot 
tell:  the  Lord's  will  be  fulfilled,  how  soon  soever  it  shall 
come.     I  know  the  Lord's  words  must  be  verified  in  me, 
that  I  shall  appear  before  the  incorrupt  Judge,  and  be  ac- 
countable to  him  for  all  my  former  life.     And  although  the 
hope  of  his  mercy  is  my  sheet-anchor  of  eternal  salvation, 
yet  am  I  persuaded  that  whosoever  wittingly  neglecteth,  and 
regardeth  not  to  clear  his  conscience,   he  cannot  have  peace 
with  God,  nor  a  lively  faith  in  his  mercy.  Conscience,  there- 
fore, moveth  me,  considering  you  were  one  of  my  family  and 
one  of  my  household,  of  whom  then  I  think  I  had  a  special 
care ;  but,  alas,  now  when  the  trial  doth  separate  the  chaff 
from  the  corn,  how  small  a  deal  it  is,  God  knoweth,  which 
the  wind  doth  not  blow  away ; — this  conscience,  I  say,   doth 
move  me  to  fear  lest  the  lightness  of  my  family  should  be  laid 
to  my  charge,  for  lack  of  more  earnest  and  diligent  instruc- 
tion which  should  have  been  done.     But   blessed  be  God, 
which  hath  given  me  grace  to  see  this  my  default,  and  to  la- 
ment from  the  bottom  of  my  heart  before  my  departing  hence. 
This  conscience  doth  move  me  also  now  to  require  both  you 
and  my  friend  Dr.  Harvey  to  remember  your  promises  made 
to  me  in  times  past,  of  the  pure  setting  forth  and  preaching 
of  God's  word  and  his  truth.     These  promises,  although  you 
shall  not  need  to  fear  to  be  charged  with  them  of  me  hereaf- 
ter before  the  world,  yet  look  for  none  other  (I  exhort  you  as 
my  friends)  but  to  be  charged  with  them  at   God's  hand. 
This  conscience,  and  the  love  that  I  bear  unto  you,  biddeth 


A.D.   1530-1839.  BISHOP  RIDLEY.  177 

me  now  say  unto  you  both,  in  God's  name,  '  Fear  God,  and 
love  not  the  world ;'  for  God  is  able  to  cast  both  body  and 
soul  into  hell  fire ;  '  when  his  wrath  shall  suddenly  be  kindled, 
blessed  are  all  they  that  put  their  trust  in  him.'  And  the  saying 
of  St.  John  is  true, 'AH  that  is  in  the  world,  as  the  lust  of  the 
flesh,  the  lust  of  the  eye,  and  the  pride  of  life,  is  not  of  the  Father, 
but  of  the  world ;  and  the  world  passeth  away,  and  the  lust 
thereof;  but  he  that  doeth  the  will  of  God  abidethfor  ever.'" 
This  admonition,  so  calm,  so  solemn,  so  affecting,  produced 
such  a  powei'ful  effect  on  the  unhappy  person  to  whom  it  was 
addressed,  that  he  pined  away  with  grief  and  remorse,  and 
soon  after  died. 

Ridley  had  been  removed  to  Oxford,  with  his  venerable 
fellow-prisoners  Bishops  Cranmer  and  Latimer,  before  he 
wrote  this  letter.  In  1555  he  and  Latimer  were  examined 
by  the  papal  delegates ;  and  on  their  refusal  to  submit  to  the 
pope,  were  degraded  from  their  orders ;  Ridley  steadily  re- 
fusing to  move  his  cap,  or  show  the  least  sign  of  submission 
or  reverence  to  the  usurped  authority  of  the  papal  delegates. 
He,  with  Latimer,  was  then  delivered  to  the  temporal  magis- 
trates to  be  burned  to  death.  The  evening  before  his  mar- 
tyrdom, Ridley  prepared  himself  for  his  departure  with  joy 
and  triumph.  He  washed  himself,  and  invited  his  friends 
and  relations  to  be  present  at  his  "  marriage"  in  the  morn- 
ing. His  discourse  melted  into  tears  one  of  his  most  ob- 
durate enemies  who  was  present.  Ridley  said,  "  You  love 
me  not  now,  I  see  well  enough;  for  in  that  you  weep,  it 
doth  appear  you  will  not  be  at  my  marriage,  neither  be  con- 
tent therewith.  But  quiet  yourself;  though  my  breakfast 
shall  be  somewhat  sharp  and  painful,  yet  I  am  sure  my  sup- 
per  shall  be  more  pleasant  and  sweet," 

In  the  morning,  he  approached  the  place  of  execution  ar- 
rayed in  a  handsome  black  gown;  and  as  he  passed  the 
prison  of  Bocardo,  he  looked  to  the  chamber  where  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer  was  imprisoned,  hoping  to  have  seen  and 
spoken  to  him  ;  but  he  was  engaged  in  disputing  with  Friar  Soto 


178  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII. 

and  others:  but  shortly  behind  him  he  saw  and  spoke  to  Lati- 
mer, who  came  clad  in  his  shroud  to  be  ready  for  *he  fire. 
When  they  came  to  the  spot,  he  ran  to  Latimer,  with  a  joyful 
countenance,  embraced  and  kissed  him,  and  comforted  him, 
saying,  "Be  of  good  heart,  brother;  for  God  will  either 
assuage  the  fury  of  the  flame,  oi  else  strengthen  us  to  abide 
it."  Then  turning  to  the  stake,  he  kissed  it,  and  kneeling 
down,  prayed  earnestly,  as  did  Latimer  likewise.  Then 
rising,  they  conferred  together  for  a  little  while.  Dr.  Smith 
preached  the  sermon  usual  on  such  occasions,  to  which  the 
martyrs  besought  permission  to  reply ;  but  were  informed,  that 
unless  they  recanted,  they  should  not  speak.  "  Well,"  re- 
plied the  illustrious  martyr,  "  so  long  as  the  breath  is  in  my 
body,  I  will  never  deny  my  Lord  Christ  and  his  known  truth  ; 
God's  will  be  done  in  me."  He  then  said,  with  a  loud  voice, 
"  I  commit  my  cause  to  Almighty  God,  who  will  judge  all  in- 
differently." 

They  were  then  ordered  to  make  ready  for  burning,  which 
they  mildly  obeyed.  Ridley  gave  away  several  small  things 
to  persons  standing  by,  many  of  whom  were  v/eeping.  Lati- 
mer now  stood  in  his  shroud;  and  he  who  before,  in  an  old 
coat  and  cap,  seemed  a  withered  and  crooked  old  man,  now 
roused  to  play  the  man,  stood  upright,  and  appeared  a  venera- 
ble  and  comely  person.  Ridley,  standing  in  his  shirt  at  the 
stake,  lifted  up  his  hands  toward  heaven,  and  prayed,  "  O 
heavenly  Father,  I  give  unto  thee  most  hearty  thanks,  for 
that  thou  hast  called  me  to  be  a  professor  of  thee  even  unto 
death.  I  beseech  thee,  Lord  God,  take  mercy  upon  the  realm 
of  England,  and  deliver  the  same  from  all  her  enemies.'* 
Then  the  smith  fastened  an  iron  chain  round  the  bodies  of 
both  the  martyrs,  tying  them  to  the  stake.  A  faggot  was  now 
lighted  and  laid  at  Ridley's  feet,  when  Latimer  said,  "Be  of 
good  comfort,  master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man.  We  shall 
this  day  light  such  a  candle  by  God's  grace  in  England,  as,  I 
trust,  shall  never  be  put  out."  When  Ridley  saw  the  fire 
flaming  towards  him,  he  cried  with  an  exceeding  loud  voice- 


A.D.  1530-1839.  HOOKER.  179 

"  Into  thy  hands,  O  Lord,  I  commend  my  spirit ;  O  Lord,  re- 
ceive my  spirit."  Latimer,  on  the  other  side,  exclaimed, 
"  O  Father  of  heaven,  receive  my  soul."  Then  he  received 
the  flame  as  if  he  were  embracing  it,  and  soon  died,  with  but 
little  appearance  of  pain. 

But  Ridley  had  to  undergo  dreadful  and  lingering  tortures ; 
for  the  fire  on  his  side  was  so  smothered  by  the  quantity  of 
faggots,  that  his  legs  were  slowly  consumed,  while  he  cried 
to  his  tormentors  to  "  let  the  fire  come  at  him."  But  in  all 
his  agony,  he  still  called  on  God,  "  Lord,  have  mercy  upon 
me."  At  length  the  faggots  were  removed  by  one  of  the 
by-standers;  and  when  the  tortured  martyr  saw  the  fire 
flaming  up,  he  wrenched  himself  to  that  side.  •  And  when  the 
flame  reached  a  bag  of  gunpowder  which  hung  round  his 
neck,  he  was  seen  to  stir  no  more,  but  burned  on  the  other 
side  ;  and  either  from  the  chain  loosing,  or  by  the  overpoise 
of  his  body  after  his  legs  were  consumed,  he  fell  over  the 
chain  down  at  Latimer's  feet. 

Thus  died  this  illustrious  martyr — or  rather,  thus  did 
he  enter  eternal  life ;  and  it  may  be  said  with  truth,  that 
never,  since  the  days  of  the  apostles,  was  there  a  nobler  mani- 
festation of  Christian  faith  and  heroism.  It  was  worthy  of 
the  brightest  days  of  the  primitive  church ;  and  not  even 
Polycarp,  in  the  amphitheatre  of  Smyrna,  exceeded  the  glory 
of  Nicholas  Ridley. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  days  when  the  righteous  were  no 
longer  persecuted,  and  learning  and  piety  were  exposed  to 
none  but  the  ordinary  trials. 

Richard  Hooker  (usually  called  "judicious  Hooker") 
was  born  near  Exeter,  about  1553,  of  parents  remarkable  for 
virtue  arid  industry.  From  his  childhood  he  was  grave,  de- 
sirous of  learning ;  modest,  and  of  so  sv/eet  and  serene  a 
quietness  and  meekness  of  nature,  that  many  believed  him  to 
have  an  inward  and  blessed  divine  light.  The  seeds  of  sin- 
cere piety  which  his  parents  early  instilled  into  his  mind 
were  so  continually  watered  with  the  dews  of  God's  bias 


180  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII 

sed  Spirit,  that  his  infant  virtues  grew  into  such  holy  habits, 
as  made  him  daily  more  in  favour  both  with  God  and  man. 

About  1567,  when  Dr.  Jewel,  that  celebrated  opponent  of 
Romish  errors,  v/as  bishop  of  Salisbury,  the  parents  of  Hooker 
being  unable  to  defray  the  expense  of  an  university  educa- 
tion for  their  son,  this  learned  bisiiop,  being  made  acquainted 
with  the  circumstance,  and  having  examined  and  observed  the 
boy's  knowledge  and  behaviour,  procured  for  him  a  mainte- 
nance at  Corpus  Christi  College,  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Here  he  continued  for  several  years,  still  increasing  in  learn- 
ing and  prudence,  and  so  much  in  humility  and  piety,  that  he 
seemed  to  be  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  1571  he  expe- 
rienced the  loss  of  his  kind  friend  and  patron,  Bishop  Jewel, 
who  died,  as  he  had  lived,  in  devout  meditation  and  prayer ; 
but  soon  after,  Edwin  Sandys,  bishop  of  London,  v»^ho  had 
heard  from  Jewel  of  Hooker's  great  merits  and  learning, 
placed  his  son  under  his  tuition.  While  Hooker  was  a  stu- 
dent  in  the  university,  so  great  was  his  devotion,  that  in  four 
years  he  was  but  twice  absent  from  the  chapel -prayers.  His 
behaviour  there  was  such  as  showed  an  awful  reverence  of 
that  God  whom  he  there  worshipped,  giving  all  outward  tes- 
timonies that  his  affections  were  set  on  heavenly  things. 
He  was  never  known  to  be  angry,  passionate,  or  extreme  in 
his  desires;  never  heard  to  repine  or  dispute  with  Provi- 
dence ;  but  by  a  quiet,  gentle  submission  of  his  will  to  the 
wisdom  of  his  Creator,  bore  the  burden  of  the  day  with  pa- 
tience. He  was  never  heard  to  utter  an  uncomely  word ; 
and  by  this,  and  his  grave  behaviour,  he  caused  a  reverence 
towards  his  person  even  from  those  that  elsewhere  cast  off  all 
strictness  of  behaviour.  In  1577  he  became  a  fellow  of  his 
college ;  and  two  years  after  was  appointed  by  the  chancellor 
of  the  university  to  read  the  Hebrew  lecture.  In  1584  he 
was  appointed  to  the  parsonage  of  Drayton  Beauchamp,  in 
Buckinghamshire;  and  in  the  next  year,  through  the  recom- 
mendation  of  his  friend  Sandys,  archbishop  of  York,  was  made 
master  of  the  Temple  in  London. 


A.D.  1530-1839.  HOOKER.  181 

At  this  time  t!ie  Chuicii  had  been  for  some  years  exceed- 
ingly troubkxl  by  the  schismatical  proceedings  of  the  Puri- 
tans, who  declaimed  against  all  her  rites  and  ceremonies  as 
popish  and  anti-Christian.  Of  this  party  was  one  Travers, 
who  had  been  irregularly  ordained  abroad  by  some  persons 
who  were  not  of  the  degree  of  bishops,  and  who  now  minis- 
tered as  lecturer  of  the  Temple,  though  the  law  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  prohibited  such  persons  from  acting  as  ministers. 
Travers,  who  had  himself  aspired  to  be  master  of  the  Tem- 
ple, opposed  Hooker's  doctrines  in  the  pulpit,  and  afterwards 
petitioned  the  privy  council,  charging  him  with  many  errors, 
especially  for  his  charitable  opinion,  that  many  of  our  fore- 
fathers, who  lived  in  the  times  of  superstition,  were  saved ; 
but   Archbishop    Whitgift,    whom  Queen  158S  1604 

Elizabeth  intrusted  with  the  entire  man- 
agement of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  had  such  good  testimonies 
of  Hookeii"'s  principles,  learning,  and  moderation,  that  all  so- 
licitations against  him  v/ere  of  no  effect. 

Though  Travers  was  obliged  to  leave  the  Temple,  he  had 
several  supporters  there,  who  rendered  Hooker's  position  very 
uneasy.  To  bring  them  to  a  better  mind,  he  resolved  to  write 
his  celebrated  books  on  the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity ; 
and  finding  that  his  situation  did  not  afford  sufficient  leisure, 
he  left  it  for  the  parish  of  Boscum,  near  Salisbury,  where  the 
first  four  books  were  written,  and  made  public  in  1594. 
Another  book  was  published  in  1597.  It  is  recorded  that 
when  a  part  of  this  celebrated  work  had  been  translated  for 
the  pope,  he  said,  "  There  is  no  learning  that  this  man  hath  not 
Bearched  into;  nothing  too  hard  for  his  understanding.  This 
man  indeed  deserves  the  name  of  an  author :  his  books  win 
get  reverence  by  age,  for  there  are  in  them  such  seeds  of  eter- 
nity, that  if  the  rest  be  like  this,  they  shall  last  till  the  last  fire 
fthall  consume  all  learning." 

In  1595  he  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  Bishopsborne, 
in  Kent,  in  which  place  he  continued  his  customary  rules  of 
mortification  and  self-denial,  fasted    often,   was  frequent  in 

16 


182  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.   XXIII. 

meditation  and  prayer,  enjoying  those  blessed  returns  which 
only  such  men  feel  and  know.  Before  long,  his  writings,  and 
the  innocency  and  sanctity  of  his  life,  became  so  remarkable, 
that  many  persons  came  from  all  parts  to  see  him.  His  habit 
was  usually  coarse  and  mean ;  his  appearance  lowly,  and 
accordant  with  the  humility  of  his  soul ;  his  body  was  wast- 
ed, not  with  age,  but  with  study  and  holy  mortifications.  He 
here  forsook  all  the  pleasures  and  allurements  of  the  world, 
possessing  his  soul  in  a  virtuous  quietness,  which  he  main- 
tained by  constant  study,  prayer,  and  meditation.  He  preach- 
ed  every  Sunday  morning,  and  in  the  evening  catechised  his 
parishioners.  His  sermons  were  not  long,  but  delivered  with 
a  grave  zeal;  they  were  addressed  to  the  reason,  and  abound- 
ed in  apt  illustrations.  He  fasted  strictly  in  Ember-week, 
when  he  usually  retired  into  the  church  for  many  hours,  and 
did  the  same  on  most  Fridays  and  other  days  of  fasting.  He 
was  most  diligent  in  visiting  the  sick,  exhorting  them  to  con- 
fession of  their  sins  and  repentance. 

While  Hooker  was  thus  engaged  in  all  the  exercises  of 
piety,  and  was  also  preparing  the  last  books  of  his  Ecclesias- 
tical Polity,  he  fell  into  a  long  and  sharp  illness,  and  began 
to  fail.  A  few  days  before  his  death,  the  pious  Dr.  Saravia, 
prebendary  of  Canterbury,  who  knew  the  very  secrets  of  his 
soul,  (for  they  were  supposed  to  confess  their  sins  to  each 
other,)  came  to  him,  and  after  a  conference  on  the  safety  and 
benefit  of  the  Church's  absolution,  it  was  resolved  that  Sara- 
via should  administer  that  and  the  holy  eucharist  the  follow- 
ing day.  When  the  time  came,  they  retired  for  a  short  while 
Trom  the  company,  and  then  returned,  when  Hooker  received 
the  blessed  sacrament  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ ; 
which  being  performed,  Saravia  thought  he  saw  a  reverend 
gaiety  and  joy  in  his  face  ;  but  it  lasted  not  long,  for  his  bodily 
infirmities  returned  with  violence.  The  next  day  he  found 
Hooker  better  in  appearance,  but  deep  in  contemplation,  and 
not  inclined  to  converse.  When  he  was  asked  the  subject  of 
his  thoughts,  he  replied,  ''  that  he  was  meditating  the  number 


A.D.  1530-1839.  FERRAR.  183 

and  nature  of  angels,  and  their  blessed  obedience  and  order, 
without  which  peace  could  not  be  in  heaven;  and  O  that  it 
might  be  so  on  earth  !"  After  which  he  said,  "I  have  lived 
to  see  this  world  is  made  up  of  perturbations,  and  I  have  been 
long  preparing  to  leave  it,  and  gathering  comfort  for  the 
dreadful  hour  of  making  my  account  with  God,  which  I  now 
apprehend  to  be  near ;  and  though  I  have,  by  his  grace,  loved 
him  in  my  youth,  and  feared  him  in  my  age,  and  laboured  to 
have  a  conscience  void  of  offence  to  him  and  to  all  men,  yet 
if  thou.  Lord,  be  extreme  to  mark  what  I  have  done  amiss, 
who  can  abide  it  ?  And  therefore,  where  I  have  failed,  Lord, 
show  mercy  unto  me ;  for  I  plead  not  my  righteousness,  but 
the  forgiveness  of  my  unrighteousness,  for  His  merits  who 
died,  to  purchase  pardon  for  penitent  sinners  ;  and  since  I  owe 
thee  a  death.  Lord,  let  it  not  be  terrible,  and  then  take  thine 
own  time,  I  submit  to  it :  let  not  mine,  O  Lord,  but  let  thy 
will  be  done."  He  then  fell  into  a  dangerous  slumber,  and 
awaking  once  more  said,  "  God  hath  heard  my  daily  peti- 
tions, for  I  am  at  peace  with  all  men,  and  he  is  at  peace  with 
me ;  and  from  that  blessed  assurance  I  feel  that  inward  joy 
which  this  world  can  neither  give  nor  take  from  me  ;  my  con- 
science beareth  me  this  witness,  and  this  witness  makes  the 
thoughts  of  death  joyful.  I  could  wish  to  live  to  do  the 
Church  more  service,  but  cannot  hope  it ;  for  my  days  are 
pastas  a  shadow  that  returns  not."  Thus  speak-  1600 

ing,  his  spirit  failed,  and  the  holy  man  slept  in 
Jesus  Christ. 

Nicholas  Ferrak,  a  holy  deacon  of  the  Church,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  and  noble  family,  and  was  born  in 
London  in  1592.  His  parents  educated  him  in  the  paths  of 
piety  and  virtue,  and  his  progress  in  learning  was  rapid.  His 
disposition  was  grave,  and  he  early  showed  a  dislike  of  any 
thing  that  savoured  of  worldly  vanity.  In  his  apparel  he 
wished  to  be  neat,  but  refused  any  thing  that  was  not  simple 
and  plain.  He  was  good-natured  and  tender-hearted  in  the 
highest  degree,  and  so  fearful  of  offending  any  one,  that  ho 


184  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII. 

would  weep  abundantly  on  the  least  apprehension  of  having 
done  so.  In  his  fourteenth  year  he  went  to  study  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  was  eminently  distinguished 
there  by  his  abilities  and  learning ;  so  that  his  tutor  used  to 
say  of  him,  "  May  God  keep  him  in  a  right  mind  !  for  if  he 
should  turn  schismatic  or  heretic,  he  would  make  work  for  all 
the  world." 

His  health  becoming  much  impaired,  he  was  advised  to 
travel,  and  in  1612  went  abroad  in  the  train  of  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  and  the  Palsgrave.  He  then  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sities of  Leipsic  and  Padua.  After  visiting  Rome  and  many 
parts  of  the  continent,  he  returned  to  England  in  1618;  and 
soon  after  became  actively  engaged  in  the  affairs  of  a  great 
company  for  colonising  Virginia  in  America,  of  which  he 
was  chosen  deputy-governor ;  and  in  this  situation  he  dis- 
played the  greatest  ability  in  defending  the  company  from  the 
intrigues  of  Gondomar,  the  Spanish  ambassador.  While  he 
was  thus  engaged,  the  excellence  of  his  conduct  induced  an 
opulent  merchant  of  London  to  offer  him  in  marriage  his 
only  daughter,  a  young  lady  of  great  beauty  and  accomplish- 
ments, with  a  large  fortune :  but  Ferrar  replied  with  many 
thanks,  declining  so  honourable  an  offer;  "  for  if  God,"  said 
he,  "  will  give  me  grace  to  keep  a  resolution  long  since  form- 
ed, I  have  determined  to  lead  a  single  life;  and  after  having 
discharged  to  the  best  of  my  ability  my  duty  to  the  com- 
pany and  to  my  family  as  to  worldly  concerns,  I  seriously 
purpose  to  devote  myself  to  God,  and  to  go  into  a  religious 
retirement." 

On  the  dissolution  of  the  Virginia  company,  he  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  parliament,  where  he  was  highly  distinguish- 
ed for  eloquence  and  ability,  and  was  appointed  to  draw  up 
the  charge  against  the  Earl  of  Middlesex,  lord  treasurer,  for 
his  conduct  in  the  affairs  of  the  Virginia  company.  Nicholas 
Ferrar  was  now  at  leisure  to  carry  into  execution  his  plan 
of  a  religious  life.  He  accordingly  retired  to  Little  Gidding, 
in  Huntingdonshire,  accompanied  by  his  mother  and  breth- 


A.D.  1530-1839.  FERRAR.  185 

ren,  whom  he  had  persuaded  to  follow  his  example,  and  several 
friends,  to  the  number  altogether  of  near  forty.  He  was  now 
twenty-seven  years  of  age ;  and  in  order  to  carry  on  his  re- 
ligious plans  by  his  own  personal  assistance,  he  resolved  to 
become  a  deacon.  This  wish  was  communicated  by  a  friend 
to  Laud,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  ordained  him  a  deacon  in  1626 ;  after  which  he 
signed  a  vow,  that  since  God  had  so  often  heard  his  most  hum- 
ble petitions,  and  delivered  him  out  of  many  dangers,  and  in 
many  desperate  calamities  had  extended  his  mercy  to  him,  he 
would  therefore  now  give  himself  up  continually  to  serve 
God  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  in  the  office  of  a  deacon,  into 
which  office  he  had  that  morning  been  regularly  ordained ; 
that  he  had  long  ago  seen  enough  of  the  manners  and  of  the 
vanities  of  the  world,  and  that  he  did  hold  them  all  in  so  low 
esteem,  that  he  was  resolved  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  mortifications,  in  devotion  and  charity,  and  in  a  con- 
stant preparation  for  death. 

Some  high  nobles  at  court,  who  knew  his  virtues,  hearing 
that  he  had  been  ordained,  immediately  offered  him  some  ec- 
clesiastical benefices  of  great  value ;  but  these  he  refused 
with  steadiness  and  humility,  saying  that  he  did  not  think 
himself  worthy.  He  added,  that  his  fixed  determination  was 
to  rise  no  higher  in  the  Church  than  the  place  and  office 
which  he  now  possessed,  and  which  he  had  undertaken  only 
with  the  view  to  be  legally  authorised  to  give  spiritual  as- 
sistance, according  to  his  abilities,  to  his  family  and  others 
with  whom  he  might  be  concerned ;  that  as  to  temporal  af- 
fairs, he  had  now  parted  with  all  his  worldly  estate,  and  di- 
vided it  amongst  his  family ;  that  he  earnestly  besought  his 
honoured  friends  to  accept  his  sincere  thanks  for  their  good 
opinion  of  him,  for  whose  prosperity,  both  in  this  world  and 
a  better,  he  would  never  cease  to  pray. 

The  parish  church,  which  was  close  to  the  manor-house  of 
Gidding,  had  fallen  into  decay,  and  divine  service  had  been 
discontinued  in  consequence  of  the  depopulation  o.f  the  par- 

16* 


186  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII. 

ish ;  it  was  now  repaired  and  beautified  at  the  expense  of 
Ferrar's  mother,  a  pious  and  holy  woman.  The  house  itself 
was  very  large,  and  Ferrar  allotted  one  room  as  an  oratory 
for  the  devotions  of  the  whole  famil}'-,  besides  two  separate 
oratories  for  the  men  and  women  at  night.  His  own  lodg- 
ings were  so  contrived,  that  he  could  conveniently  see  that 
every  thing  was  conducted  with  decency  and  order.  He 
established  a  school  close  to  the  house,  and  provided  masters 
for  the  free  instruction  of  all  the  children  who  came  from  the 
neighbouring  towns.  He  was  very  diligent  in  catechising 
the  children  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  caused  them  to  learn 
the  Psalter  by  heart.  Every  Sunday,  after  morning  service, 
these  children,  more  than  one  hundred  in  number,  were  hos- 
pitably entertained  by  the  religious  society  at  Gidding. 
Whilst  dinner  was  serving,  they  sang  a  hymn  to  the  organ ; 
then  grace  was  said  by  the  clergyman  of  the  parish;  and 
during  dinner  a  chapter  in  the  Bible,  together  with  some  his- 
tories of  the  saints  and  martyrs,  were  read.  After  evening 
service,  all  the  society  went  into  their  oratory,  when  select 
portions  of  the  Psalms  were  repeated.  After  this,  they  were 
at  liberty  till  eight  o'clock,  when  the  bell  again  summoned 
them  to  the  oratory,  where  they  sang  a  hymn  to  the  organ 
and  went  to  prayers ;  and  then  all  retired  to  their  private 
apartments.  On  the  first  Sunday  in  every  month  they  re- 
ceived the  holy  communion. 

On  week-days  they  rose  at  four  in  the  morning ;  at  five 
went  to  prayers  in  the  oratory ;  at  six  said  the  Psalms  of  the 
hour, — for  every  hour  had  its  appointed  Psalm,  with  some 
portion  of  the  Gospel ;  then  they  sang  a  hymn,  repeated 
some  passages  of  Scripture,  and  at  half-past  six  went  to 
church  to  matins.  At  seven  they  said  the  Psalms  of  the  hour, 
sang  a  hymn,  and  went  to  breakfast.  At  ten  they  went  to 
church  to  litany;  at  eleven  to  dinner,  during  which  Scripture 
and  pious  books  were  read  aloud.  They  went  to  evening 
prayers  in  the  church  at  four ;  after  which  came  supper  and 
recreations  till  eight,  at  which  time  they  prayed  in  their  ora- 


A.D.  1530-1839.  FERRAR.  187 

tory.  During  the  night  there  was  a  continual  vigil  or 
watching,  in  which  several  of  the  men  and  women,  in  their 
respective  oratories,  repeated  the  whole  Psalter,  together- with 
prayers  for  the  life  of  the  king  and  his  sons,  from  nine  at 
night  till  one  in  the  mormng.  The  time  of  this  watch  being 
ended,  they  awoke  Nicholas  Ferrar,  who  constantly  rose  at 
one  o'clock,  and  betook  himself  to  religious  meditation,  ac- 
cording to  these  words,  "  At  midnight  will  I  rise  and  give 
thanks."  Ferrar  himself  lay  upon  a  skin  stretched  on  the 
floor,  arrayed  in  a  loose  frieze  gown ;  and  he  watched  in  the 
oratory  or  the  church  three  nights  in  the  week.  Several 
religious  persons,  both  from  the  neighbourhood  and  from 
'iistant  parts  of  the  country,  attended  these  vigils,  and  prac- 
tised them  elsewhere.  The  leisure  hours  of  this  holy  society 
were  devoted  to  the  instruction  of  the  poor,  the  dispensation 
of  alms  and  medicines  to  the  sick,  and  the  composition  of  a 
harmony  of  the  Gospels.  Ferrar  himself  wrote  several 
valuable  religious  treatises,  and  compiled  lives  of  saints. 

In  1631,  Dr.  Williams,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  the  diocesan, 
came  to  visit  Ferrar,  when  he  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
his  way  of  serving  God,  and  of  examining  the  rules  for 
watching,  fasting,  praymg,  psalmody,  readings,  almsgiving, 
and  all  other  points  established  in  this  society ;  all  of  which 
he  highly  approved,  and  bade  them  in  God's  name  to  proceed. 
Some  years  after,  he  again  visited  Gidding;  and,  to  honour 
the  society,  gave  notice  that  he  would  preach  in  their  church, 
where  an  immense  multitude  of  people  assembled  to  hear 
him.  In  his  sermon  he  enlarged  most  on  what  it  was  to 
"  die  unto  the  world :"  all  tended  to  approve  the  dutiful  and 
severe  life  of  the  Ferrars,  and  of  the  Church  that  was  in  their 
house. 

King  Charles  I.  held  Nicholas  Ferrar  in  great  reverence, 
and  came  more  than  once  to  visit  this  religious  society ;  and 
having  perused  the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  which  they  had 
compiled,  he  was  so  much  pleased  with  it,  that  he  requested 
them  to  prepare  a  copy  for  his  own  peculiar  use. 


188  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORV.  CH.  XXIII. 

In  1637  the  strength  of  Fevrar  began  rapidly  to  fail ;  but 
he  experienced  no  bodily  pam.  He  conversed  with  hh 
friends,  exhorting  them  to  persevere  in  the  way  he  had  point- 
ed out  to  them ;  and  after  expressing  his  conviction  that  sad 
times  were  coming  on  the  Church,  and  lamenting  the  suffer- 
ings which  they  woidd  have  to  endure,  lie  received  the  holy 
''ucharist;  and  as  the  clock  struck  one  at  night,  the  houi-  :• 
wiiich  for  so  many  years  he  had  constantly  risen  to  worsiiii) 
God,  he  departed  this  life  in  a  rapturous  ecstacy  of  devotion. 
The  society  over  which  he  had  presided  was  persecuted  and 
dispersed  during  the  great  rebellion,  which  shortly  afterwards 
broke  out,  and  in  which  the  King  and  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury,  the  friends  of  this  holy  man,  were  put  to  death  by  the 
Presbyterians  and  Independents. 

Henry  Hammond  was  born  in  1605,  at  Chertsey  in  Surrey  ; 
and  was  so  early  blessed  with  the  grace  of  piety,  that,  even 
while  he  was  a  boy  at  Eton,  he  would  retire  from  his  play- 
fellows into  places  of  privacy  to  pray  to  God.  He  was  re- 
markable for  sweetness  of  disposition,  and  early  proficiency 
in  learning ;  so  that,  when  only  thirteen  years  of  age,  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  fel 
low  of  Magdalen  College,  and  studied  thirteen  hours  a  day 
In  a  few  years  he  had  read  most  of  the  classic  writers 
fathers,  councils,  and  schoolmen,  besides  the  holy  Scriptures 
In  1629  he  was  elevated  to  the  holy  order  of  priesthood  ;  an 
in  1633  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Penshurst  in  Kent.  H  > 
now  devoted  himself  to  his  parochial  duties,  preaching  di- 
ligently, offering  up  the  daily  sacrifice  of  prayer  for  his  peo- 
ple, administering  the  sacraments,  relieving  the  poor,  keeping 
hospitality,  reconciling  differences  among  neighbours,  visit- 
ing the  sick,  and  catechising  youth.  He  was  also  frequently 
called  to  preach  at  Paul's  Cross  in  London;  was  a  member 
of  convocation,  archdeacon  of  Chichester ;  and  was  engaged 
in  every  holy  and  good  work  of  his  ministry,  when  the  rebel- 
164*^  lion  broke  out;  and  an  attempt  having  been 
n;ade  in  favour  of  the  king  in  that  neighbour 


A.D.   1530-1839.  HAMMOND.  189 

hood,  which  Hammond  was  supposed  to  have  encouraged,  he 
was  obliged  to  escape  to  Oxford,  where  he  lay  concealed  for 
some  time,  and  wrote  many  excellent  works  in  defence  of 
true  religion  and  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  against  the 
heresies  and  schisms  then  so  prevalent.  He  afterwards  dis- 
puted publicly  against  the  sectarians,  and  was  made  canon 
of  Christ  Church,  and  chaplain  to  his  majesty  King  Charles 
I.  Hammond  attended  the  king  during  his  imprisonment 
until  1647,  when  all  his  majesty's  attendants  were  removed 
from  about  his  person.  After  this  Hammond  was  himself 
cast  into  prison  by  the  Parliamentarians,  where  he  commenced 
his  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  and  his  famous  work 
in  Defence  of  Episcopacy  against  Blondel. 

He  was  never  married,  though  he  had  some  intentions  of 
entering  into  that  state ;  but  was  deterred  by  the  aspect  of 
the  times,  and  by  recollecting  the  apostle's  advice  (1  Cor. 
vii.  26.)  His  habits  of  chastity  and  modesty  at  all  times 
were  remarkable.  His  self-denial  was  so  great,  that  he  sel- 
dom eat  more  than  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  He  was  per- 
fectly indifferent  as  to  the  quality  of  his  food.  In  sleep  he 
was  so  temperate  that  he  rarely  slept  more  than  four  or  five 
hours  in  the  night.  He  was  never  idle,  but  always  engaged 
in  something  useful.  In  devotion  he  has  rarely  been  exceed- 
ed :  besides  occasional  and  supernumerary  addresses,  his  cer- 
tain perpetual  returns  of  prayer  exceeded  David's  "seven 
times  a  day;"  and  even  the  night  was  not  without  its  office, 
the  fifty-first  Psalm  being  his  designed  midnight  entertain- 
ment. In  his  prayers,  his  attention  was  not  only  fixed  and 
steady,  but  his  fervour  was  so  great,  that  frequently  his  trans- 
port threw  him  prostrate  upon  the  earth.  His  tears  also 
would  interrupt  his  words ;  and  this  not  merely  in  his  private 
prayers,  but  in  the  common  service  of  the  Church.  So  great 
was  his  spirit  of  forgiveness,  that,  having  been  most  cruelly 
and  maliciously  treated  by  some  persons,  he  had  a  peculiar 
daily  prayer  purposely  for  them.  From  his  friends  he  par- 
ticularly sought  to  learn  his  faults  and  offences,  and  even  his 


190  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY,  CH.  XXIII. 

failings  in  discretion  and  wisdom.  His  alms,  even  when  he 
was  reduced  to  the  greatest  distress,  were  very  abundant. 
He  not  only  sought  for  the  neighbouring  poor,  but  assisted 
students  at  the  universities,  and  the  clergy  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled from  their  parishes,  or  driven  into  exile,  by  the  sectaries. 
Though  he  was  very  unwilling  to  be  interrupted  in  his  studies 
by  any  concerns  of  his  own,  he  never  kept  any  one  waiting, 
but  would  immediately  come  to  any  visitor,  more  especially 
when  he  was  informed  that  a  poor  man  wished  to  speak  to 
him. 

After  he  was  released  from  prison,  he  retired  to  Worces- 
tershire, where  he  continued  his  labours  in  the  cause  of  re- 

ioan       liffion:  and,  when  Kinaj  Charles  II.  wa*  restored 
A.D.  1660.         ^       ',  ,.  ,  . 

to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  Hammond  was 

designed  to  fill  the  vacant  see  of  Worcester ;  but  as  he  was 
on  his  way  to  London,  he  was  seized  with  illness,  and  rfter  suf- 
fering dreadful  pains  with  all  the  patience,  submission,  ind  piety 
which  might  have  been  expected  from  so  holy  and  useful  a 
life,  he  departed  to  his  eternal  reward  in  the  fifty-fiftii  year  of 
his  age. 

Thomas  Wilson,  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man,  was  born  in 
Cheshire,  in  1663,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin, 
where  he  intended  to  practise  medicine,  but  was  persuaded 
by  a  pious  archdeacon  to  undertake  the  sacred  ministry.  In 
1686  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and  appointed  to  a  curacy  in 
Lancashire;  and  in  1689  he  was  raised  to  the  priesthood,  on 
which  solemn  occasion  he  again  dedicated  himself  to  the  ser- 
vice of  his  Lord  and  Master,  and  formed  the  most  solemn  re- 
solutions  of  living  more  than  ever  to  the  glory  of  that  Saviour 
"  who  loved  him,  and  gave  himself  for  him."  In  confcrmity 
with  these  resolutions,  he  discharged  his  sacred  duties  with 
indefatigable  zeal ;  "holiness  to  the  Lord"  was  inscribed  on 
every  part  of  his  conduct.  The  lustre  of  such  a  character 
lfiQ2  could  not  long  be  concealed  ;  and  he  was  select- 
'  ed  by  the  Earl  of  Derby  to  be  his  chaplain,  and 
the  preceptor  of  his  son.     After  some  time,  observing  with 


A.D.  1530-1839.  BISHOP  WILSON.  191 

deep  regret  the  embarrassed  state  of  his  patron's  affairs, 
caused  by  habits  of  profusion  and  inattention  to  domestic 
economy,  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  remonstrate  with  the  earl  on 
his  conduct ;  and  he  so  judiciously  and  wisely  managed  this 
delicate  affair,  that  ere  long  he  had  the  great  satisfaction  of 
seeing  his  noble  friend  relieved  from  his  embarrassments,  and 
a  train  of  distressed  tradesmen  and  dependents  effectually 
relieved. 

The  bishopric  of  Sodor  and  Man  had  been  vacant  from  the 
year  1693,  and  Lord  Derby,  to  whom  the  appointment  be- 
longed as  lord  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  offered  it  to  his  chaplain. 
He  thankfully  acknowledged  the  honour  intended  him,  but 
declared  himself  unworthy  of  so  high  an  office,  and  incapa- 
ble of  so  arduous  an  undertaking ;  and  it  was  only  after  the 
see  had  been  vacant  for  four  years,  and  the  metropolitan  had 
complained  to  the  king  on  the  subject,  that  Wilson  was  at  last 
"  forced  into  the  see."  He  was  consecrated  in  1697.  Bishop 
Wilson  now  devoted  himself  most  zealously  to  the  duties  of 
the  episcopate.  He  felt  that  he  had  been  called  by  Divine 
appointment  to  this  arduous  station,  and  was  persuaded  that 
every  necessary  help  would  be  afforded  him.  He  was  fre- 
quent* in  prayer,  and  thence  derived  the  skill  and  grace 
which  appeared  in  his  ministry.  His  life,  indeed,  was  a  life 
of  prayer.  By  his  frequent  intercourse  with  Heaven,  he  be- 
came heavenly  in  his  temper,  his  views,  and  his  whole  con- 
versation. 

The  temporal  and  spiritual  state  of  his  diocese  called  for 
most  vigorous  exertions.  He  was  obliged  to  rebuild  the  epis- 
copal mansion,  which  had  fallen  into  decay,  and  to  effect 
many  other  expensive  repairs.  He  lamented  that  this  forced 
him  in  some  degree  to  intermit  his  charity  to  the  poor.  His 
attention  was  directed  to  whatever  could  in  any  degree  pro- 
mote the  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  the  country.  He 
was  seen  in  every  quarter  of  his  diocese,  counselling,  guid- 
ing,  and  directing.  His  charity  was  always  most  abundant. 
Whon  he  possessed,  early  in  life,  only  30Z.  per  annum,  he  de- 


192  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XXIII. 

voted  one  tenth  of  this  income  to  the  poor.     As  his  income 
gradually  increased,  a  greater  share  was  distributed  in  alms. 
He  always  laid  aside  the  proportion  destined  for  the  poor  in 
a  certain   place.     In  this  treasury,   which  he   named   "the 
poor's  drawer,"  was  deposited  at  first  a  tenth,  then  a  fifth, 
afterwards  a  third,  and  at  last  half   his  income.      Every 
deposit  there  was  converted  into  an  act  both  of  charity  and 
devotion ;  prayers  and  alms  were  incessantly  united.     At  his 
house  every  kind  of  distress  found  relief.  Whether  the  hungry 
or  the  naked  applied,  their  claims  were  certain  to  be  duly 
considered  and  liberally  answered.      In  his  barn  was  always 
a  provision  of  corn  and  meal  for  the  indigent;  and  the  good 
bishop  gave  orders  to  his  steward  when  corn  was  measured 
to  the  poor  never  to  stroke  it,  as  was  usual,  but  to  give  heaped 
measure.     His  demesne  contained  several  manufactories  of 
different  sorts,  where  artisans  were  engaged  in  preparing  gar- 
ments for  the  poor.     The  bishop  attended  even  to  the  small- 
est circumstances  which  could  benefit  his  people.     He  would 
purchase  quantities  of  spectacles,  and  distribute  them  amongst 
the  aged  poor,  that  they  might  be  enabled  to  read  their  Bibles. 
Bishop  Wilson  was  unwearied  in  his  endeavours  to  im- 
prove the  parochial  schools.      He  was  a  constant  and  earnest 
preacher,  and  during  the  fifty-eight  years  of  his  episcopate 
he  never  failed  every  Sunday  to  preach  or  celebrate  the  holy 
rites  of  the  Church,  except  when  prevented  by  illness.     No- 
thing could  exceed  his  care  and  diligence  in  obtaining  an  ef- 
fective and  pious  clergy.     From  the  moment  that  any  student 
declared  his  intention  of  entering  the  sacred  ministry,  the 
bishop  formed  a  close  connection  with  him,  watched  over  his 
conduct,  and  guided  his  studies  and  pursuits.      After  his  en- 
trance on  the  sacred  ministry,  the  bishop  made  him  reside 
with  him  for  a  whole  year,  that  he  might  exercise  a  more 
minute  inspection,  and  administer  daily  instruction  and  ad- 
vice.     He  held  many  synods  of  the  clergy,  in  which  several 
wise  constitutions  and  canons  of  discipline  were  made  and 
enforced.     He  frequently  addressed   his  clergy  in  pastoral 


A.D.  1530-1839.  BISHOP  WILSON.  198 

letters  full  of  piety  and  wisdom ;  and  so  great  was  the  ven- 
eration in  which  they  held  him,  that  half  a  century  after  his 
decease,  aged  clergy  have  been  heard  to  recount  the  virtues 
of  Bishop  Wilson  with  tears  of  affection  trembling  in  their 
eyes.  Bishop  Wilson  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Manks 
language,  into  which  he  translated  several  pious  books,  and 
procured  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  be  translat- 
ed into  that  language. 

Bishop  Wilson  was  a  man  of  prayer.  He  not  only  prayed 
every  morning  at  six  o'clock  with  his  family,  and  also  in  the 
evening,  but  he  retired  three  times  every  day  to  his  private 
devotions.  Even  in  the  night  he  might  be  heard  engaged 
in  prayer.  Sometimes  the  words  of  the  Psalmist  were  indis- 
tinctly heard  by  his  attendants.  "  I  will  arise  at  midnight, 
and  give  thanks  unto  thee.  Praise  the  Lord,  O,  my  soul ; 
and  all  that  is  within  me,  praise  his  holy  name."  Sometimes 
parts  of  the  Te  Deum  were  recognised.  Such  were  the  night- 
ly orisons  of  this  holy  man.  Words  of  instruction  and  con- 
solation were  continually  flowing  from  his  lips ;  so  that  it 
was  scarcely  possible  to  enjoy  his  society  even  for  a  short 
time  without  growing  wiser  and  better.  His  actions,  how- 
ever, spoke  more  forcibly  than  language ;  the  beauty  of 
holiness  shone  forth  in  all  his  conversation,  irradiated  his 
countenance,  and  gave  a  peculiar  charm  to  every  thing  he 
said  or  did. 

In  1722,  the  bishop,  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty  as  the  guar- 
dian of  the  sacraments,  forbade  the  governor's  wife  to  ap- 
proach the  holy  table,  as  a  punishment  for  a  very  scandalous 
calumny  which  she  had  disseminated.  A  clergyman  having 
disobeyed  this  injunction  of  the  bishop,  he  was  suspended ; 
and  the  result  was,  that  the  bishop  was  illegally  seized  and 
imprisoned,  with  his  two  vicars-general.  During  this  afflic- 
tion, the  bishop  was  occupied  in  prayer  and  meditation,  and 
in  plans  for  the  advancement  of  his  Master's  Kingdom.  The 
poor  were  loud  in  their  lamentations ;  and  being  indignant  at 
the  inj  istice  practised  towardc  their  beloved  pastor,  they  were 
17 


194  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIH. 

about  to  level  the  governor's  house  to  the  ground,  when  they 
were  restrained  by  the  voice  of  their  bishop,  who  spoke  to  them 
from  his  prison,  and  exhorted  them  to  peace  and  submission. 
At  length  he  was  released  on  appeal  to  the  king.  The  day 
of  his  release  was  one  of  universal  rejoicing.  The  multi- 
tudes extended  for  three  miles  in  length,  scattering  flowers 
beneath  his  feet,  to  the  sound  of  music  and  loud  rejoicings. 
Bishop  Wilson's  strictness  in  observing  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline may  be  collected  from  the  circumstances  alrealy  al- 
luded to. 

At  length  he  was  to  be  called  away  to  his  reward  in 
heaven.  He  beheld  the  approach  of  death  with  peace  and 
calmness,  but  with  the  deepest  humility.  Shortly  before  his 
death,  a  crowd  of  poor  people  were  assembled  in  the  hall  to 
receive  his  blessing  and  alms,  when  he  was  overheard  say- 
ing "  God,  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner,  a  vile  sinner,  a 
miserable  sinner  !"  He  fell  into  delirium  some  weeks  be- 
fore his  decease,  but  his  dreams  were  filled  with  visions 
of  angels.  He  died  in  1755,  in  the  ninety-third  year  of 
his  age. 

It  would  be  easy  to  add  many  other  instances  of  Christian 
piety  from  the  records  of  the  Church  in  the  period  now  be- 
fore us.  The  learning  and  sanctity  of  Usher,  of  Bedel, 
Andrews,  Beveridge,  Bull,  would  have  done  honour  to  the 
best  days  of  Christianity.  In  recent  times,  the  spirit  of  mis- 
sionary zeal  has  again  revived,  and  the  venerable  Societies 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  have  enlarged  the  spheres  of  their  opera- 
tions. The  foundation  of  these  societies  is  chiefly  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  pious  zeal  of  Dr.  Thomas  Bray,  who,  at  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  appointed  by  the  Bishop 
of  London  as  his  commissary  in  Maryland,  America ;  and  who, 
A  n  1'*'01  °"  ^^^  return,  established  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts. 
This  excellent  Society  has  for  a  long  series  of  years  devoted 
itself  to  the  mamtenance    of  Christian  mission.'?  in  North 


A.D.  1530-1839.  ROMAN  CHURCHES.  195 

America,  and  other  possessions  of  the  British  crown.  The 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  had  been  estab- 
lished in  1698;  and  from  that  period  to  the  present  time  it 
has  laboured  for  the  benefit  Df  the  Church,  in  circulating  the 
Scriptures  and  religious  books,  in  contributing  to  the  assist- 
ance of  distressed  churches,  and  in  maintaining  missions  to 
the  heathen,  especially  in  India.  Nor  would  it  be  just,  in  this 
place,  to  omit  all  mention  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
which  has  been  formed  within  the  present  cen-  ^  .^  1800. 
tury,  and  which  has  contributed  much  to  the 
spread  of  the  Christian  faith  amongst  the  heathen,  especially 
in  the  islands  of  the  Southern  Ocean. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

ON  THE  ROMAN  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  1517-1839. 

The  Churches  which  either  voluntarily  or  by  compulsion 
remained  under  the  papal  jurisdiction,  and  rejected  the  Re- 
formation,  were  those  of  Italy,  Spain,  Austria,  Poland,  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  France,  and  part  of  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land. The  conduct  of  the  pope  towards  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  has  already  been  noticed,  together  with  the  assem- 
bling of  the  council  of  Trent.  This  famous  synod,  which 
in  many  of  its  sessions  consisted  of  about  forty  or  fifty 
bishops,  had  at  last  nearly  two  hundred.  It  closed  in  1563, 
having  decided  in  favour  of  purgatory,  transubstantiation,  and 
some  other  erro-neous  opinions,  which  it  declared  articles  of 
faith;  and  approved  of  invocation  of  saints,  honouring  of 
relics,  communion  in  one  kind,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
&c.  Certain  opinions,  universally  prevalent  at  that  time  in 
the  Roman  Churches,  obliged  their  members  to  receive  all 


196  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XXIV. 

the  decrees  of  this  synod  implicitly  and  without  any  discus- 
sion or  examination.  One  great  party  believed  the  pope  in- 
fallible ;  the  remainder  held  that  a  general  council  was  infal- 
lible ;  consequently,  both  agreed  that  a  general  council,  ap- 
proved by  a  pope,  (as  the  council  of  Trent  was)  must  be  in- 
fallible, and  that  whoever  differed  from  it  must  be  a  heretic. 
All  this  was  widely  different  from  the  notions  and  the  practice 
of  primitive  times,  when  the  decrees  of  councils  were  exam- 
ined and  judged  by  the  universal  Church,  and  derived  their 
full  authority  only  from  universal  consent.  And  hence  it 
appears  that  the  decrees  of  Trent  were  only  those  of  the 
bishops  assembled  there,  not  the  deliberate  judgments  of  the 
whole  Roman  Church,  and  still  less  the  judgments  of  the 
whole  catholic  or  universal  Church.  Under  the  same  erro- 
neous opinions  alluded  to  above,  the  Roman  Churches  refrain- 
ed from  communicating  with  the  Reformed  Churches  and 
communities,  and  engaged  in  vehement  controversies  with 
them,  which  have  not  yet  ceased.  These  controversies  were 
for  a  long  time  chiefly  managed  by  a  learned  and  artful  socie- 
-  -„«  ty,  called  the  Jesuits,  who  were  founded  by  a 
Spaniard,  named  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  who 
soon  became  the  principal  agents  of  the  popes,  and  the  chief 
support  of  their  power. 

The  Roman  Churches,  soon  after  the  council  of  Trent, 
became  much  divided  amongst  themselves  on  the  questions 
of  Divine  grace,  of  the  authority  of  councils  compared  with 
that  of  popes,  and  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Vir- 
gin. In  these  disputes  the  different  parties  went  so  far  as  to 
charge  their  adversaries  with  heresy.  It  would  occupy  too 
large  a  space  to  detail  these  disputes  and  divisions ;  but  the 
doctrines  of  Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ipres,  which  were  made  pub- 
lic in  1640,  led  to  infinite  divisions  and  uneasiness  in  the  Ro- 
man Churches.  These  doctrines,  which  approximated  to 
those  of  Calvin,  were  assailed  with  vehemence  by  the  Jesuits 

^aAn  i^io        and  the  popes.  But  it  was  in  vain  that  Ur- 
A.D.  1642-1713.       ,       ,„^i.   ^^  V      » ,  ,      -TTTT 

ban  VIII.,  Innocent  X.,  Alexander  VII., 


A.D.  1517-1839.  ROMAN  CHURCHES.  197 

and  Clement  XL,  fulminated  censures,  excommunications, 
bulls,  rescripts,  briefs,  &c.,  against  the  Jansenists.  In  vain 
were  subscriptions  required  to  formularies  condemning  their 
doctrines,  and  every  ingenious  device  put  in  force  to  get  rid 
of  this  party.  All  was  fruitless — the  Jansenists  continued 
to  hold  their  benefices  in  the  Roman  Churches,  and  in  the 
earlier  half  of  last  century  a  number  of  the  French  bishops 
were  of  that  party.  Jansenism  has  ever  since  more  or  less 
disturbed  the  Roman  communion. 

With  Jansenism  a  reforming  spirit  arose,  which  produced 
a  variety  of  innovations.  In  Germany,  about  1760,  many 
theologians  decried  the  papal  authority,  which  they  wished  to 
reduce  within  the  narrowest  limits  ;  and  taught  that  several  of 
the  common  practices  and  opinions  were  superstitious.  The 
Emperor  Joseph  II.,  who  began  to  reign  in  1781,  acted  on 
these  principles,  suppressed  monasteries,  forbade  papal  dis- 
pensations, regulated  ceremonies,  favoured  the  Jansenists, 
removed  images  from  the  churches,  suppressed  some  episco- 
pal sees,  anS  assumed  the  patronage  of  all  the  bishoprics  in 
Lombardy  which  had  belonged  to  the  popes.  Pius  VI.  in 
vain  opposed  these  proceedings ;  they  became  embodied  in 
the  laws  of  Austria ;  and  the  churches  within  that  empire,  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  are  more  under  the  temporal  power  than 
under  the  pope.  In  various  parts  of  Germany  the  Romish 
clergy  condemn  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  communion 
in  one  kind,  and  celebrate  divine  service  in  German.  The 
conduct  of  Joseph  II.  was  imitated  in  Tuscany  by  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,*  (who  forbade  all  appeal  to  the  popes,)  and  in 
Naples,  Parma,  Portug.al.  A  number  of  monasteries  were 
suppressed  by  the  King  of  Sicily  in  1776.  In  Holland  the 
Jansenists  have  had  bishops  of  their  own  since  1723,  who 
claim  to  be  members  of  the  Roman  Church,  though  the  popes 
will  not  recognise  them  as  such. 

The  most  vehement  opponents  of  the  Jansenists  were  the 

•  [With  the  advice  and  aid  of  the  learned  and  pious  Scipio  de  Ricci,  bishop 
of  Pistoia.  nephew  of  the  last  Gererul  of  the  Order  of  Jesuits. — Am.  Ed.] 

17* 


198  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXIV. 

Jesuits,  already  alluded  to,  who  ch'^fly  engaged  in  the  defence 
of  the  Roman  Church  against  its  opponents,  in  the  education 
of  youth,  and  in  the  dissemination  of  Christianity  in  heathen 
lands.  The  leading  members  of  this  society  were  bound  by 
an  oath  to  go  wherever  the  pope  should  think  fit  to  send  them. 
Their  perfect  internal  discipline ;  their  entire  obedience  to 
their  general  (thus  the  head  of  the  order  was  termed;)  the 
art  with  which  they  adapted  their  instructions  to  every  class 
of  people ;  the  consummate  ability,  learning,  and  judgment 
which  they  displayed ;  soon  rendered  them  the  most  powerful 
and  opulent  of  the  monastic  orders.  They  became  the  grand 
bulwark  of  the  papacy,  supporting  all  its  claims  with  un- 
wearied assiduity.  The  facility  with  which  they  relaxed  the 
moral  system  of  Christianity,  and  accommodated  it  to  the 
propensities  of  mankind,  rendered  them  exceedingly  popular 
as  spiritual  advisers  and  confessors  in  the  courts  of  princes, 
and  amongst  the  wealthy  and  noble.  They  soon  obtained 
exclusive  dominion  in  these  high  places.  For  a  century  af- 
ter the  foundation  of  this  society,  all  the  most  eminent  theolo- 
gians of  the  Roman  communion  were  found  amongst  its  mem- 
bers. The  names  of  Salmeron,  Lainez,  Bellarmine,  Vas- 
quez,  Petavius,  and  many  others,  might  be  mentioned  in  illus- 
tration of  this. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Jesuits  were  craft  and  subtilty. 
They  were  perfectly  unscrupulous  in  the  use  of  means  for  the 
accomplishment  of  their  ends.  Evasions,  mental  reserva- 
tions, equivocations,  were  openly  defended  and  unblushingly 
practised ;  even  direct  falsehood  was  employed,  whenever  it 
was  imagined  to  be  necessary  for  the  interests  of  theii 
cause.  These  dangerous  principles  and  practices  of  Jesuit- 
ism were  most  ably  exposed  by  the  celebrated  Pascal,  in  the 
Provincial  Letters,  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.  This  powerful  and  wealthy  society,  however,  was  at 
last  destined  to  fall. 

About  the  year  1760,  their  evil  practices  and  political  in- 
trigues having  excited  universal  jealousy    the  French  parlia- 


A.D.  1517-1839.  JESUITS.  199 

ment  supressed  the  order  of  Jesuits,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  the  pope  and  bishops.  They  were  soon  after 
suppressed  by  the  civil  power  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  &;c. ; 
and,  in  fine,  the  order  was  extinguished  by  Pope  1773 

Clement  XIV.     This  was  a  grievous  blow  to 
the  papacy,    of  which  the  Jesuits  v/ere  most   devoted  par- 
tisans.    In  the  course  of  the  present  century,  this  dangerous 
order  has  been  revived  by  Pope  Pius  VII.,  and  ^g^  . 

is  beginning  again  to  trouble  the  Church.* 

A  spirit  of  infidelity  had  long  been  spreading  itself  in 
France  and  other  parts  of  the  continent,  under  the  influence 
of  Voltaire,  D'Alembert,  and  others.  Many  of  these  infi- 
dels were  members,  and  even  clergy,  of  the  Roman  churches. 
In  1789  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  and  led  to  the  im- 
mediate suppression  of  monasteries,  and  the  destruction  of 
Church  property.  The  Galilean  Church  was  then  re-or- 
ganised by  the  power  of  the  republic ;  all  the  bishops  were 
driven  from  their  sees,  in  consequence  of  their  refusing  to 
acquiesce  in  this  alteration,  by  which  the  num-  1790 

ber  of  bishoprics  was  reduced  more  than  one 
half,  and   the  papal    power  suppressed.       A    body  of  new 
bishops  were  then  appointed,  and  consecrated  by  Talleyrand, 
bishop  of  Autun.     Before  long,   several  of  these  Galilean 
bishops  declared  themselves  atheists,  and  renounced  the  wor- 
ship  of  God.      All   religion   was  then   proscribed.     When 
Buonaparte  became  first  consul,  he  negotiated         ^    1801 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Church  with  Pope  Pi- 
us VII.,  and  the  latter,  in  consequence,  insisted  on  all  the  old 
royalist  bishops  and  the  constitutional  prelates  resigning  their 
sees.     On  the  refusal  of  many  of  the   former,  he  declared 
their  consejit  needless,  annihilated  159  bishoprics,  and  created 
in  their  place  60  new  ones.     Buonaparte  then  enacted  laws, 

*  [It  is  spreading  itself  both  openly  and  secretly  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  with  its  wonted  policy  seeming  to  adapt  itself  to  the  institu- 
tions of  the  country,  while  by  getting  the  control  of  education,  it  prepares 
to  modify  and  direct  those  in  ;titutions  at  its  will. — Am.  Ed.] 


200  ECCLESIASTICAr.  HISTORl  CH.  XXIV. 

placing  the  new  Galilean  Church  entirely  under  the  control 
of  government,  as  it  continues  to  be  to  the  present  day.  The 
adherents  of  the  deprived  bishops  declared  these  acts  s^his- 
malical,  and  they  form  a  distinct  communion  from  the  rest  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Some  years  afterwards,  Buonaparte  ex- 
tinguished the  temporal  power  of  the  pope ;  which,  however, 
was  restored  again  at  the  peace  in  1814. 

The  monasteries  were  also  suppressed  in  France,  Italy, 
Germany ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  last  few  years,  they  have 
been  suppressed  in  Spain  and  Portugal  by  the  temporal  rulers 
in  those  countries.  The  pope  has  now  entirely  lost  that  tem- 
poral power  over  the  princes  of  Europe,  which  in  the  middle 
ages  filled  the  world  with  confusion.  The  recent  acts  of  the 
King  of  Prussia,  in  imprisoning  some  bishops  who  had  vio- 
lated  the  laws,  and  their  own  engagements,  with  reference 
to  marriages  between  persons  of  different  communions, 
would  a  few  centuries  since  have  been  followed  by  his  depo- 
sition from  the  throne,  and  the  proclamation  of  a  crusade 
against  him. 

The  limits  of  the  Roman  Churches  were  much  enlarged 

about  the  time  of  the   Reformation  by  the  conquests  of  the 

Portuguese  and  Spanish  in  the  east  and  west.    A  great  number 

of  converts  from  heathenism  in  the  east  were  made  by  the  pious 

,_.f^         zeal    of  Francis   Xavier,   who  sailed   for  the 
A.D.  1542.        „  ,  .     T    1.  1  . 

Portuguese  settlements  m  India,  and  in  a  very 

short  time  succeeded  in  spreading  the  Christian  religion 
throughout  that  vast  country  and  the  adjoining  islands.  In 
1549  he  went  to  Japan,  and  established  there  numerous 
churches,  which  continued  to  flourish  for  many  years,  until  they 
were  brought  into  persecution,  and  destroyed  by  the  intrigues 
of  the  Jesuits.  He  died  in  1552,  as  he  was  about  to  attempt 
the  conversion  of  the  Chinese ;  but  after  his  death,  Matthew 
Ricci,  and  other  Jesuits,  penetrated  into  that  empire;  and 
having  made  themselves  very  acceptable  to  the  emperor  by 
their  skill  in  science,  they  were  permitted  to  instruct  the  peo- 
ple in  the  Christian  religjion ;  and  thus  the  foundation  of  the 


A.D.   1517-1839.  ROMAN  CHURCHES.  801 

church  was  laid  amungst  the  Chinese,>  which  still  continues, 
under  much  persecution,  to  exist  among  them.  The  Nesto- 
rians  of  St.  Thomas  wei'e  also  forced  to  unite  ,  ^-qq 

themselves  with  the  Roman  Church  by  Mene- 
zes,  archbishop  of  Goa.     Christianity,  wHich  was  now  intro- 
duced into  South  America  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese, 
obtained  numerous  converts  there,  and  took  deep  and  perma- 
nent root. 

The  synod  of  Trent  reformed  some  of  the  grosser  abuses 
in  discipline  ;  but  its  canons  of  discipline  were  not  universal- 
ly received.  The  controversies  with  the  advocates  of  refor- 
mation led  to  some  amelioration  of  doctrine  amongst  the  well- 
informed  members  of  the  Roman  Church.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  became  their  object  to  represent  their  doc- 
trines in  the  form  which  was  most  moderate,  most  conforma- 
ble to  Scripture,  and  most  approximating  to  the  tenets  of  the 
Reformation.  One  object  in  this  new  system  of  argument 
was  to  convict  the  Protestants  of  schism  in  voluntarily  for- 
saking the  communion  of  the  Church, — an  offence  which  was 
imputed  to  them  by  their  antagonists,  and  too  often  admitted 
by  themselves,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  facts  of  history. 
This  mode  of  argument,  however — in  the  hands  of  the  cele- 
brated Roman  theologians  Bossuet  and  Veron — had  the  effect 
of  producing  sounder  and  more  moderate  views  on  many 
subjects  in  the  Romish  Church  itself,  though  it  is  unhappily 
but  too  certain  that  the  great  mass  of  that  community  are 
still  involved  in  superstitions  and  errors  very  injurious  to  true 
religion.  The  principles  of  moraHty  have  also  become  very 
much  relaxed  amongst  them  by  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits ; 
and  the  S3^,stem  of  questioning  adopted  at  confession  seems 
calculated  for  the  dissemination  of  vice. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXV. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

FRUITS  OF  FAITH  IN  THE  ROMAN  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  1530-1660. 

However  deeply  we  may  deplore  the  abuses  and  corrup- 
tions which  exist  in  the  Roman  Churches,  and  however  cer- 
tain it  be  that  many  errors  injurious  to  Christian  piety,  and 
many  offences  against  Christian  morality,  are  found  in  that 
communion,  still  it  would  argue  a  prejudiced  and  uncharitable 
mind  to  close  our  eyes  on  several  bright  examples  of  Chris- 
tian holiness  which  have  adorned  the  Roman  communion  in 
the  latter  ages,  and  to  refuse  to  recognise  the  impress  of 
Divine  grace  on  lives  adorned  by  every  virtue  which  can  flow 
from  a  lively  faith  and  charity.  The  contemplation  of  such 
examples  will  tend  to  remove  any  feelings  of  spiritual  pride 
which  might  arise  from  imagining  that  virtue  and  goodness 
are  restrained  to  some  particular  branch  of  the  Church  of 
Christ,  while  the  great  mass  of  Christendom  is  given  over 
entirely  to  darkness  and  to  sin. 

Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the  Indies,  was  born  in 
1506,  in  Navarre,  of  an  illustrious  family,  and  was  pursuing 
his  studies  at  the  University  of  Paris,  when  he  became  the 
friend,  and  ultimately  one  of  the  disciples  of  Ignatius  Loyola, 
the  founder  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  a  man  of  an  enthusiastic 
turn  of  mind,  and  of  a  piety  which  was  deeply  tinged  with  su- 
perstition. In  1537  Xavier  was  ordained  priest,  and  took  the 
vows  as  a  member  of  the  new  order.  The  following  year, 
while  Ignatius  and  his  disciples  were  at  Rome,  whither  they 
had  gone  to  place  themselves  under  the  directions  of  the  pope 
as  to  their  future  destination,  an  application  was  made  by  the 
King  of  Portugal  for  the  assistance  of  some  of  these  zealous 
men  to  preach  the  Gospel   in  the  East  Indies.     In  compli- 


A.D.  1530-1660.  XAVIER.  203 

ance  with  this  request,  Francis  Xavier  was  sent  ^^.^ 

to  Portugal,  whence,  in  the  following  year,  he 
sailed  for  India,  with  various  powers  and  recommendations 
from  the  pope.  During  the  voyage,  he  considered  the  crew 
of  the  vessel  in  which  he  sailed  as  intrusted  to  his  peculiar 
care.  He  instructed  the  sailors  in  their  catechism,  preached 
every  Sunday  before  the  main-mast,  visited  the  sick,  con- 
verted his  own  cabin  into  an  infirmary,  while  he  himself  lay 
on  the  deck  ;  and,  with  the  ascetic  spirit  of  his  order  at  that 
time,  subsisted  entirely  on  charity,  being  possessed  of 
nothing  himself.  In  short,  during  the  whole  voyage,  he 
evinced  a  spirit  of  zeal  and  piety  which  afforded  a  pledge  of 
the  success  of  that  great  work  which  he  v/as  about  to  under- 
take. 

In  1542  he  landed  at  Goa;  and  having  obtained  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  bishop,  he  commenced  his  mission.  The  state 
of  religion  amongst  professing  Christians  in  that  place  was 
most  lamentable.  The  Portuguese  inhabitants  were  full  of 
revenge,  ambition,  avarice,  and  every  description  of  wicked- 
ness ;  all  sentiments  of  religion  seemed  extinguished  in  them. 
The  sacraments  were  neglected ;  there  were  scarcely  any 
preachers  ;  and  the  heathen,  immersed  in  every  sin,  were 
neither  led  by  precept  nor  example  to  forsake  their  errors 
and  superstitions.  Xavier  beheld  with  grief  the  scandalous 
example  of  the  nominal  Christians  around  him ;  and  he  re- 
solved to  labour  for  their  conversion  and  reformation  in  the 
first  instance. 

He  began  by  instructing  them  in  the  principles  of  religion, 
and  by  forming  the  youth  in  the  practice  of  piety.  Having 
spent  the  morning  of  each  day  in  the  hospitals  and  prisons, 
assisting  and  comforting  the  distressed,  he  walked  through 
the  streets  of  Goa,  with  a  bell  in  his  hand,  summoning  all 
masters,  for  the  love  of  God,  to  send  their  children  and  slaves 
to  be  catechised.  The  children  gathered  in  crowds  around 
him  r.  he  led  them  to  church,  taught  them  the  creed  and  prac- 
tices  of  devotion,  and  impressed  on  thena  strong  sentiments 


204  iiCCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.   XXV. 

of  piety  and  religion.  The  effect  produced  on  the  youth  soon 
became  manifest ;  the  example  began  to  spread ;  the  whole 
town  was  influenced  to  turn  from  sin.  After  a  time,  Xavier 
preached  in  public,  and  visited  the  people  in  their  houses ; 
and  a  nK)st  extraordinary  and  universal  reformation  in  their 
morals  and  habits  ensued. 

After  six  months  spent  in  these  successful  labours,  Xavier. 
hearing  that  many  of  the  Paravas,  a  people  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  India,  near  Cape  Comorin,  had  some  years  before 
permitted  themselves  to  be  baptised,  in  order  to  gratify  the 
Portuguese;  and  having  gained  some  knowledge  of  their 
language,  went  thither  with  two  young  clergy  who  under- 
stood the  language  sufficiently  well.  Here  Xavier  preached 
the  Gospel  with  such  success,  that  these  people  were  convert- 
ed in  thousands ;  and  so  great  were  the  multitudes  whom  he 
baptised,  that  sometimes,  from  the  fatigue  of  administering 
that  sacrament,  he  could  hardly  move  his  arm.  It  is  said, 
that  he  was  enabled  to  work  several  remarkable  cures  of  sick 
persons;  and  a  belief  in  such  wonders,  whether  well  or  ill- 
founded,  seems  to  have  had  much  influence  in  contributing  to 
the  extraordinary  success  of  his  ministry.  His  labours,  in- 
deed, were  incredible:  while  he  lived  only  on  rice  and 
water,  like  the  very  pooresi  of  the  people,  he  was  able  to  de- 
vote his  whole  day  and  night,  except  three  hours  of  sleep,  to 
the  exercise  of  his  ministry  and  the  duties  of  devotion. 

Xavier  had  laboured  for  more  than  a  year  in  the  conver- 
sion  of  these  people,  when  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Goa 
for  assistance.  He  came  back  in  1.544  with  several  mission- 
aries, some  of  whom  he  stationed  in  different  towns,  to  con- 
tinue the  instruction  of  his  converts ;  the  others  he  brought 
with  him  to  the  adjoining  kingdom  of  Travancore,  where  he 
baptised  ten  thousand  Indians  in  one  month;  and  in  a  very 
few  months,  almost  the  whole  kingdom  of  Travancore  em- 
braced Christianity.  He  afterwards  visited  several  other 
parts  of  India,  where  he  founded  churches.  Xavier  th«n 
sailed  to  Malacca,  a  famous  mart  for  merchandise,  where  he 


A.D.  1530-1660.  XAViER.  205 

arrived  in  1545;  and  by  the  irresistible  ardour  of  his  zeal, 
reformed  the  Christians  in  that  place,  and  converted  many- 
pagans  and  Mahommedans.  He  next  preached  in  the  Spice 
Islands,  Amboyna,  the  Moluccas,  and  Ceylon,  in  all  of  which 
he  brought  great  numbers  to  the  faith.  In  this  mission  he 
experienced  many  sufferings  and  dangers ;  but  his  zeal  for 
.God  caused  him  rather  to  rejoice  in  those  things.  "  The 
'dangers  to  which  I  am  exposed,"  said  he,  "  and  the  toils  1 
undergo  for  the  interest  of  God  only,  are  an  inexhaustible 
spring  of  spiritual  joys,  insomuch  that  these  islands,  bare  as 
they  are  of  all  worldly  necessaries,  are  the  very  places  in 
the  world  for  a  man  to  lose  his  sight  through  the  excess  of 
weeping;  but  they  are  tears  of  joy.  I  never  remember  to 
have  tasted  such  inward  delights;  and  these  consolations  of 
the  soul  are  so  pure,  so  exquisite,  so  constant,  that  they  take 
from  me  all  sense  of  my  corporeal  sufferings.'' 

Having  returned  again  to  Goa,  Xavier  soon  after  sailed  on 
a  mission  to  Japan,  wliere  he  arrived  in  1549,  and  was  re- 
ceived favourably  by  the  king,  who  allowed  him  to  preach 
the  Gospel ;  and  he  applied  himself  with  such  extreme  dili- 
gence to  the  study  of  the  language,  that  in  a  few  weeks  he 
was  able  to  translate  the  creed,  and  an  exposition  of  it,  to- 
gether with  a  life  of  our  Saviour  compiled  from  the  Gospels, 
and  to  preach  in  public.  He  made  many  converts,  amongst 
whom  he  distributed  the  translations  he  had  made.  He  con- 
tinued to  preach  amongst  the  islands  with  various  success :  at 
Fuceo  vast  multitudes  of  people  desired  to  be  instructed  and 
baptised ;  and  the  king  himself  was  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  the  Gospel.  Having  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Christian 
Dhurch  throughout  Japan,  he  again  embarked  for  India  in 
1551 ;  and  after  a  short  stay  there,  was  once  more  on  his  way 
,0  preach  the  Gospel  in  China,  when  it  pleased  .. --^ 

God  to  call  away  this  great  missionary,  after  ten 
years  of  labours  and  successes  almost  unparalleled  since  the 
days  of  the  apostles. 

Charles  Borromeo,  archbishop  of  Milan,  and  cardinal  of 
18 


206  fiCCLESIASTICi.L    HISTORY.  VH.  XXV 

^„^  the  Roman  Church,  was  born  of  a  noble  famil} 
*  at  Arena,  in  the  duchy  of  Milan.  His  father,  a 
man  of  exemplary  piety,  gave  him  an  education  proportioned 
to  the  great  prospects  of  promotion  which  his  family  connec- 
tions presented  :  and  he  gave  early  signs  of  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  literary  pursuits.  His  uncle,  Pope  Pius  IV.,  on  his 
election  to  the  Roman  see,  invited  him  to  Rome,  and  created 
him  cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Milan,  when  he  was  only, 
twenty-two  years  of  age.  The  pope  intrusted  to  him  the 
chief  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  in  which  \\3 
evinced  an  ability  and  discretion  which  would  have  done 
credit  to  the  most  experienced  ecclesiastic.  The  Romans 
were  remarkable  for  indolence  and  ignorance :  to  induce 
them  to  aspire  to  a  more  honourable  character,  Borromeo  in- 
stituted an  academy,  consisting  of  ecclesiastics  and  laymen, 
whom  his  munificence  and  example  incited  to  study  and  ani 
mated  to  virtue.  But  in  the  midst  of  a  luxurious  court,  the 
young  cardinal  was  carried  away  by  the  torrent:  his  palace, 
furniture,  equipage,  and  table,  were  splendid  and  sumptuous ; 
and  his  uncle,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  support  such  ex- 
penses,  heaped  on  him  a  number  of  high  and  lucrative  ap- 
poinlments,  in  addition  to  several  rich  abbeys  and  other  bene- 
fices, of  which  he  was  possessed.  In  1562,  Borromeo's  eldest 
brother  died;  and  notwithstanding  his  high  station  in  the 
Church,  he  was  now  urged  by  the  pope,  and  by  all  his  friends, 
to  resign  his  ecclesiastical  dignities,  and  marry,  in  order  to 
support  his  family  name;  but  he  refused  their  solicitations, 
and  was  ordained  priest  the  same  year. 

The  council  of  Trent  re-assembled  about  this  time,  and 
the  reformation  of  the  clergy  became  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion. Cardinal  Borromeo  was  not  content  to  urge  that 
reformation  on  others  ;  he  adopted  it  himself.  He  dismissed 
at  once  above  eighty  officers  of  his  household ;  laid  aside  his 
robes  of  silk ;  and  submitted  once  in  every  week  to  a  day 
of  voluntary  fasting  on  bread  and  water.  In  1566,  on  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  he  retired  tx)  Milan,  and  engaged  earnest 


A.D.  1530-1660.  BORROMEO.  207 

ly  in  the  reformation  of  his  diocese.  He  began  by  the  regu- 
lation of  his  own  family,  which  consisted  of  about  a  hundred 
persons,  chiefly  clergy ;  considering  that  his  task  would  be 
easier,  when  all  he  wished  to  prescribe  to  others  was  exem- 
plified in  his  own  house.  He  soon  brought  all  his  household 
to  a  most  regular,  orderly,  and  religious  life.  His  own  hab- 
its of  piety  and  self-denial  were  very  remarkable.  He  re- 
moved from  his  palace  all  the  fine  sculpture,  paintings,  hang- 
ings, and  even  the  armorial  bearings  of  his  family;  wore  the 
coarsest  vestments  under  his  robes ;  and  avoided,  as  much 
as  possible,  being  served  or  attended  on  by  any  others.  In  order 
to  inspire  his  clergy  with  a  contempt  for  earthly  possessions, 
he  would  severely  reprove  those  who  discovered  an  interested 
or  covetous  spirit ;  even  bishops  were  not  exempt  from  his 
reproofs.  He  himself  exemplified  most  remarkably  the  vir- 
tues  of  charity  and  disinterestedness.  When  he  came  to 
reside  at  Milan,  he  voluntarily  resigned  benefices  and  estates 
to  the  value  of  80,000  crowns  per  annum,  reserving  only  an 
income  of  20,000  crowns.  The  principality  of  Oria,  which 
had  become  his  property  by  the  death  of  his  brother*,  he  sold 
for  40,000  crowns,  which  he  commanded  his  almoners  to  dis- 
tribute among  the  poor  and  the  hospitals.  When  the  list 
which  the  almoners  showed  him  for  the  distribution  amounted, 
by  mistake,  to  2000  crowns  more,  Borromeo  said  the  mistake 
was  too  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  poor  to  be  corrected, 
and  the  whole  was  accordingly  distributed  in  one  day. 
When  his  brother  died,  he  also  caused  all  the  rich  furniture 
and  jewels  of  the  family  to  be  sold,  and  gave  the  price,  which 
amounted  to  30,000  crowns,  to  the  poor.  Several  other 
cases  of  charity,  on  an  equally  large  scale,  might  be  added. 
His  chief  almoner  was  ordered  to  distribute  among  the  poor 
of  Milan,  of  whom  he  kept  an  exact  list,  200  crowns  every 
month.  Borromeo  would  never  permit  any  beggar  to  be  dis- 
missed without  some  alms,  whatever  he  was. 

He  was  exceedingly  hospitable  and  liberal  in  entertaining 
princes,  prelates,  and  strangers  of  all  ranks,  but  always  with- 


208  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXV. 

out  dainties  or  luxury ;  and  he  endeavoured  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  conceal  his  own  abstemiousness.  His  religious  foun- 
dations, repairs  of  churches,  of  the  dwellings  of  the  clergy, 
and  of  the  seminaries  of  learning,  not  only  at  Milan,  but  at 
Bologna,  Rome,  and  many  other  places,  were  on  the  most 
magnificent  scale  of  liberality. 

Borromeo  found  his  diocese  in  the  greatest  disorder.  The 
great  truths  of  salvation  were  little  known  or  understood ; 
and  religious  practices  were  profaned  by  the  grossest  abuses, 
and  disfigured  by  superstitions.  The  sacraments  were  neg- 
lected ;  the  clergy  seem  scarcely  to  have  known  how  to  ad- 
minister them,  and  were  slothful,  ignorant,  and  depraved; 
the  monasteries  were  full  of  disorders.  Borromeo  instituted 
seminaries  for  the  instruction  of  the  clergy;  appointed  a 
number  of  vicars,  or  rural  deans,  who  exercised  a  vigilant 
superintendence  over  every  part  of  his  diocese;  and  held 
many  provincial  and  diocesan  synods,  in  which  the  most  ex- 
cellent and  judicious  regulations  were  made,  and  enforced 
with  inflexible  firmness.  In  the  course  of  his  proceedings, 
he  frequently  encountered  the  most  violent  opposition  from 
those  who  were  unwilling  to  be  corrected.  The  order  of 
monks  called  Humiliati  were  particularly  irritated  by  his  la- 
hours  for  their  reform,  and  excited  against  him  one  of  their 
members,  who  actually  fired  a  musket  at  the  archbishop,  as 
he  was  one  evening  at  prayers  with  his  family.  Borromeo 
calmly  finished  his  prayer,  though  the  ball  had  struck  his 
robe  (happily  without  wounding  him,)  and  then,  with  truly 
Christian  charity,  forgave  the  assassin,  and  even  solicited  his 
pardon.  But  justice  took  its  course,  and  the  order  was  sup- 
pressed  by  the  pope. 

Borromeo  divided  the  revenue  of  his  see  into  three  parts, 
one  of  which  was  appropriated  to  his  household,  another  to 
the  poor,  and  a  third  to  the  repairs  of  churches:  and  it 
was  his  custom  to  lay  before  the  provincial  councils  the  ac- 
counts of  his  revenues  to  the  last  farthing,  saying  that  he 
was  no  more  than  an  administrator  or  steward.      He  employed 


A.D.  1530-1660.  BORROMEO.  209 

no  clergy  of  his  own  kindred  in  the  government  of  his  dio- 
cese ;  nor  did  he  resign  to  them  any  of  the  benefices  which 
had  been  conferred  on  him. 

It  was  one  of  his  greatest  pleasures  to  converse  with,  and 
catechise,  the  poor ;  and  he  would  often  visit  them  in  the  wild- 
est and  most  mountainous  parts  of  his  diocese.  On  one  oc- 
casion, while  he  was  engaged  in  his  visitation,  the  bishop  of 
Ferrara  coming  to  meet  him,  found  him  lying  under  a  fit  of 
the  ague  on  a  coarse  bed,  and  in  a  very  poor  cottage.  Bor- 
romeo,  observing  his  surprise,  rengarked  "  that  he  was  treat- 
ed very  well,  and  much  better  than  he  deserved."  During 
the  dreadful  ravages  of  a  pestilence,  this  excellent  man  en- 
couraged his  clergy  to  administer  the  consolations  of  religion 
to  the  sick  and  dying,  and  he  was  himself  assiduous  in  the 
performance  of  this  dangerous  duty.  On  this  occasion  he 
sold  all  his  furniture  to  procure  medicine  and  nourishment 
for  the  unhappy  sufferers.  He  was  careful  not  to  lose  a  mo- 
ment of  his  time :  even  at  table  he  listened  to  some  pious 
book,  or  dictated  letters  or  instructions.  When  he  fasted  on 
bread  and  water,  and  dined  in  private,  he  read  at  the  same 
time,  and  on  his  knees  when  the  Bible  was  before  him.  After 
dinner,  instead  of  conversing,  he  gave  audience  to  his  rural 
deans  and  clergy.  He  allowed  himself  no  time  for  recrea- 
tion ;  finding  in  the  different  employments  of  his  office  both 
corporal  exercise  and  relaxation  of  mind  sufficient  for  main 
taining  the  vigour  of  his  mind  and  health  of  his  body. 

When  he  was  put  in  mind  of  any  fault,  he  expressed  the 
most  sincere  gratitude ;  and  he  gave  a  commission  to  two 
prudent  and  religious  clergy  of  his  household  to  remind  him 
of  any  thing  they  saw  amiss  in  his  actions  ;  and  he  frequent- 
h''  requested  the^same  favour  of  strangers.  He  was  remarka- 
ble for  sincerity :  it  appeared  in  all  his  words  and  actions ; 
and  his  promises  were  inviolable.  He  delighted  in  prayer, 
to  which  he  gave  a  large  part  of  his  time;  and  he  never  said 
any  prayer,  or  performed  any  religious  office,  with  precipita- 
fion,  whatever  business  of  importance  might  be  on  his  hands, 
18* 


2l0  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXV- 

or  however  he  might  be  pressed  for  time.  In  giving  audience, 
and  in  the  greatest  hurry  of  business,  his  countenance,  his 
modesty,  and  all  his  words,  showed  that  he  was  full  of  the 
recollection  of  God.  His  spirit  of  prayer,  and  the  love  of 
God  which  filled  his  heart,  gave  to  him  remarkably  the  power 
of  exciting  and  encouraging  others  to  religion.  A  short  ad- 
dress, even  a  single  word  or  action,  sometimes  produced  the 
most  powerful  effects  in  animating  his  clergy  to  repentance 
and  to  virtue. 

This  great  and  good  man  died  in  1584,  in  the  forty-seventh 
year  of  his  age;  with  the  same  piety  and  sanctity  which 
adorned  his  short  but  admirable  life. 

Francis  de  Sales  was  born  of  noble  parents  in  Savoy, 
and  was  remarkable  for  a  spirit  of  piety  and  meekness  fronr* 
his  earliest  years.  His  mother  taught  him  to  venerate  the 
Church  and  religion  :  she  read  to  him  the  lives  of  holy  men; 
brought  him  with  her  to  visit  the  poor,  and  made  him  distri. 
bute  her  alms  to  them.  Having  studied  theology  and  law  al 
the  Universities  of  Paris  and  Padua,  his  parents  intended  thai 
he  should  follow  the  legal  profession,  and  they  had  already 
obtained  a  lucrative  and  important  office  from  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  for  him ;  but  Francis  had  resolved  to  devote  himself 
to  the  sacred  ministry,  and  declined  so  advantageous  an  es- 
tablishment. Through  the  intervention  and  entreaties  of  a 
relative,  his  parents  were  at  length,  with  much  difficulty,  per- 
suaded  to  accede  to  his  wishes,  and  he  then  was  appointed 
to  a  dignity  in  the  Church,  and  was  ordained  deacon.  His 
diocesan,  the  bishop  of  Annecy,  immediately  employed  him 
in  preaching,  in  which  he  was  eminently  successful,  as  his 
sermons  were  always  the  result  of  fervent  prayer.  He  was 
observed  to  decline  whatever  might  gain  the  applause  of  the 
world;  and  he  preferred  resorting  to  the  habitations  of  the 
poor,  and  to  the  rural  districts,  rather  than  preaching  before 
the  great  and  opulent.  In  1591,  the  first  year  of  his 
ministry,  he  instituted  a  society  at  Annecy,  the  associates 
of  which  were  obliged  to  instruct  the  ignorant,  to  comfort 


A.D.   1530-1660.  FRANCIS  DE  SALES.  211 

and  exhort  the  sick  and  prisoners,  and  to  abstain  from  all 
lawsuits. 

In  1594  the  Duke  of  Savoy  having  conquered  Geneva, 
and  some  of  the  adjoining  parts  of  Switzerland,  Francis  de 
Sales  was  commissioned  to  preach  in  those  parts  to  the  re- 
formed. Impressed,  like  the  rest  of  his  communion,  with  the 
mistaken  notion  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  is,  by  Divine  appoint- 
ment, the  centre  of  catholic  unity,  he  of  course  viewed  the 
reformed  as  separated  from  the  true  Church,  and  he  laboured 
for  their  conversion  for  several  years.  He  was  much  re- 
spected by  Beza,  and  the  rest  of  the  reformed  in  Switzer- 
land ;  and  the  excellence  of  his  own  character,  and  the  piety 
and  meekness  which  he  always  evinced,  probably  did  much 
more  for  his  cause  than  any  other  arguments  by  which  it  was 
sustained.  The  plague  at  one  time  raged  violently  in  the 
place  where  he  resided,  but  this  did  not  deter  him  from  as 
sisting  the  sick  in  their  last  moments  by  day  and  night ;  and 
he  was  wonderfully  preserved  in  the  pestilence,  which  carried 
off  several  of  the  clergy  who  aided  him.  In  1599  he  became 
coadjutor  of  the  bishop  of  Annecy,  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion to  that  see  ;  and  soon  after  was  obliged  to  go  to  France, 
where  he  was  received  by  all  ranks  and  classes  with  the  ut- 
most distinction.  He  preached  before  the  king,  who  en- 
deavoured to  detain  him  in  France  by  promises  of  a  large 
pension,  and  of  the  first  vacant  bishopric :  but  Francis  de 
Sales  declined  all  these  offers;  and  returning  to  the  poor 
bishopric  of  Annecy,  was  soon  after,  on  the  death  of  his  pre- 
deccssor,  consecrated  its  pastor  in  1602.  He  now  laid  down 
a  plan  of  life,  to  which  he  ever  after  rigorously  adhered. 
He  resolved  to  wear  no  expensive  clothing;  to  have  nopaint- 
incrs  except  of  a  devotional  character  in  his  house  ;  to  possess 
no  splendid  furniture  ;  to  use  no  coach  or  carriage,  but  make 
his  visitations  on  foot.  His  family  was  to  consist  of  two 
priests,  one  to  act  as  his  chaplain,  the  other  to  superintend  his 
servants  and  temporalities;  his  table  to  be  plain  and  frugal. 
He  resolved  to  be  present  at  all  religious  and  devotional  meet- 


212  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXV. 

ings  and  festivals  in  the  churches;  to  distribute  abundant 
alms ;  to  visit  the  sick  and  poor  in  person ;  to  rise  every  day  at 
four,  meditate  for  an  hour,  read  private  service,  then  prayers 
with  his  family;  then  to  read  the  Scripture;  celebrate  the 
holy  eucharist;  and  afterwards  apply  to  busines-s  till  dinner. 
He  then  gave  an  hour  to  conversation,  and  spent  the  remain- 
der  of  the  afternoon  in  business  and  prayer.  After  supper 
he  read  a  pious  book  to  his  family  for  an  hour ;  then  prayed 
with  them,  and  retired  to  his  private  devotions,  and  to  rest. 
Such  was  the  general  mode  of  life  of  this  excellent  man. 

Immediately  after  he  became  bishop,  he  applied  himself  to 
preaching,  and  to  all  the  other  duties  of  his  station.  He  was 
very  cautious  in  conferring  holy  orders,  ordaining  but  few 
clergy,  and  only  after  a  most  rigid  examination  of  their 
qualifications.  He  was  also  exceedingly  diligent  in  promot- 
ing the  instruction  of  the  ignorant  by  catechising  on  Sundays 
and  holydays;  and  his  personal  labours  in  this  respect  had  a 
very  great  influence  in  persuading  the  clergy  of  his  diocese 
to  follow  so  good  an  example.  He  still  continued  to  delight 
in  preaching  in  small  villages,  and  to  the  poorest  people, 
whom  he  regarded  as  the  special  objects  of  his  care.  He 
had  a  very  wide  correspondence  on  religious  subjects ;  and 
composed  several  books  full  of  piety  and  devotion,  but  of 
course  not  altogether  free  from  the  superstitions  of  his  age 
and  communion.  His  compassion  was  so  excited  by  the  un- 
happy condition  of  a  poor  deaf  and  dumb  man,  that  he  re- 
ceived him  into  his  own  family,  taught  him  by  signs,  and  in- 
structed him  in  religion.  He  founded  a  new  order  of  nuns, 
in  which  few  bodily  austerities  were  practised,  and  no  great 
burdens  of  religious  observances  were  imposed ;  his  object 
being  to  render  it  suitable  even  for  the  sickly  and  weak. 

The  same  disinterested  spirit  which  he  had  early  manifest 
ed  always  continued.  When  l^e  was  solicited  by  Henry  IV. 
king  of  France,  to  accept  an  abbey  of  large  income,  he  rt 
fused  it,  saying,  "  that  he  dreaded  riches  as  much  as  othei 
desired  them;  and  that  the  less  he  had  of  them,  the  lees  b 


ik.D.  1530-1660      FRANCIS  DE  SALES.  218 

should  have  to  answer  for."  The  same  prince  offered  to 
name  him  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  at  the  next  promotion ; 
but  he  replied,  that  though  he  did  not  despise  the  proffered 
dignity,  he  was  persuaded  that  great  titles  did  not  suit  him, 
and  might  raise  new  obstacles  to  his  salvation.  His  consci- 
entious firmness  was  also  remarkable.  On  one  occasion  the 
parliament  of  Chambery  in  Savoy  seized  his  temporalities  for 
refusing,  at  its  desire,  to  publish  an  ecclesiastical  censure 
which  he  thought  uncoiled  for  by  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  When  he  heard  of  the  seizure  of  his  possessions,  he 
said  that  he  thanked  God  for  teaching  him  by  it,  "that  a 
bishop  is  altogether  spiritual."  He  did  not  desist  from 
preaching,  or  apply  to  the  sovereign  for  redress ;  but  behav- 
ed in  so  kind  and  friendly  a  manner  to  those  who  had  insult. 
ed  him  most  grossly,  that  at  length  the  parliament  became 
ashamed  of  its  proceedings,  and  restored  his  temporalities. 

In  1619  he  accompanied  the  Cardinal  of  Savoy  to  Paris, 
to  demand  the  sister  of  King  Louis  XIII.  in  marriage  for  the 
prince  of  Piedmont.  While  he  was  in  that  city  he  preached 
a  course  of  Lent  sermons,  which,  aided  by  his  conferences, 
the  example  of  his  holy  life,  and  the  sweetness  of  his  di.s- 
cour'se,  most  powerfully  moved,  not  only  the  devout,  but  even 
libertines  and  atheists.  He  was  entreated,  for  the  sake  of 
his  health,  not  to  preach  twice  in  the  day.  He  re|)lied,  with 
a  smile,  "  that  it  cost  him  much  less  to  preach  a  sermon  than 
to  find  an  excuse  for  himself  when  invited  to  perform  that 
office.  God  had  appointed  him  to  be  a  pastor  and  a  preacher, 
and  ought  not  every  one  to  follow  his  profession?"  Amongst 
his  common  sayings  was  this,  *'  That  truth  must  be  always 
charitable,  for  bitter  zeal  does  harm  rather  than  good.  Re- 
prehensions are  a  food  of  hard  digestion,  and  ought  to  be 
dressed  on  a  fire  of  burning  charity  so  well,  that  all  harsh- 
ness  be  taken  away;  otherwise,  like  unripe  fruit,  they  will 
only  produce  pains.  Charity  seeks  not  itself  nor  its  own  in- 
terests, but  purely  the  honour  and  interest  of  God.  Pride, 
yanity,  aud  passion,  cause  bitterness  and  harshness.     A  re- 


214  ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  CH.  XXV 

medy  injudiciously  applied  may  be  a  poison.  A  judicious  si- 
lence is  always  better  than  a  truth  spoken  without  charity." 
On  one  occasion,  seeing  a  vicious  and  scandalous  priest 
thrown  into  prison,  he  fell  at  his  feet,  and,  with  tears,  conjur- 
ed him  to  have  compassion  on  him  his  pastor,  on  religion 
which  he  scandalized,  and  on  his  own  soul.  The  man  was 
so  deeply  impressed  by  this  conduct,  that  he  was  entirely  con- 
verted, and  became  a  virtuous  man  from  that  moment. 

In  1622  this  holy  bishop  fell  into  sfn  apoplexy;  and  as  his 
illness  slowly  increased,  he  poured  forth  his  soul  in  supplica- 
tion to  God,  and  in  all  those  expressions  of  devotion  and  hu- 
mility which  might  have  been  anticipated  at  the  close  of  so 
Christian  a  life.  He  then  peacefully  expired,  in  the  fifty-sixth 
year  of  his  age. 

Vincent  de  Paul  was  born  near  the  Pyrenees  in  France, 
of  poor  parentage,  in  1576;  and  even  from  his  childhood 
showed  a  seriousness  and  a  love  of  prayer  remarkable  for 
his  years.  His  father  was  determined,  by  the  strong  inclina- 
tions of  his  child  for  piety  and  study,  and  by  the  quickness 
of  his  parts,  to  give  him  a  school-education ;  and  for  this 
purpose  placed  him  at  a  monastery  of  Franciscan  friars.  He 
afterwards  studied  at  the  University  of  Toulouse,  where  he 
was  admitted  to  the  order  of  priesthood  in  1600.  Vincent 
was  already  endowed  with  many  virtues ;  but  he  was  now  to 
experience  trials  which  were  calculated  to  make  the  deepest 
demands  on  his  self-denial,  his  humility,  and  his  submission 
to  the  will  of  God.  He  was  on  a  voyage  from  Narbonne  to 
Marseilles,  on  some  affairs,  in  1605,  when  the  vessel  in  which 
he  was  sailing  was  captured  by  pirates  from  Africa,  who 
wounded  him  with  an  arrow,  laid  him  in  chains,  and  sailed 
for  the  coast  of  Barbary.  At  Tunis,  Vincent  was  sold  as  a 
slave  to  a  physician,  who  was  a  humane  man,  but  who  used 
his  utmost  efforts  to  induce  his  slave  to  embrace  the  Mahom- 
medan  law,  promising,  on  that  condition,  to  leave  him  all  his 
riches,  and  communicate  to  him  the  secrets  of  his  science. 
The  result  need  scarcely  be  toH .     Vincent  remained  firm  in 


h.»l>     1530-1660.  VINCENT  DE  PAUL.  215 

his  faith ;  and  on  his  master's  death  was  sold  to  another  Ma- 
hommedan,  who  treated  him  with  extreme  harshness  and 
cruelty.  He,  however,  learned  to  bear  all  his  afflictions  with 
comfort  and  joy,  by  remembering  his  blessed  Redeemer, 
and  studying  to  imitate  his  perfect  meekness,  patience,  si- 
lence, and  charity.  At  last  he  was  sold  again  to  a  renegade 
(one  who  had  apostatised  from  Christianity.)  This  man  had 
several  Turkish  wives,  one  of  whom  frequently  went  to  the 
field  where  Vincent  was  digging,  and,  out  of  curiosity,  would 
ask  him  to  sing  the  praises  of  God.  He  used  to  sing  to  her, 
with  tears  in  his  eyes,  the  Psalm,  "  By  the  waters  of  Babylon 
we  sat  down  and  wept,"  and  several  Christian  hymns.  She 
gradually  became  so  much  captivated  with  the  excellence  of 
.he  Christian  religion,  though  still  unconverted  and  professing 
the  Mahommedan  cy*eed,  that  she  continually  reproached  her 
husband  for  hisapostacy  from  so  excellent  a  religion;  and  at 
length  his  conscience  was  so  awakened,  that  he  repented  of 
his  sin,  and  resolved  to  return  to  his  country  and  his  faith. 
In  1607  he  made  his  escape  to  France,  accompanied  by  Vin- 
cent de  Paul.  They  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  where  the 
enegade  was  received  again  into  the  Church. 

On  Vincent's  return  to  Paris,  he  served  as  curate  at  a 
neighbouring  village,  and  afterwards  became  preceptor  and 
spiritual  director  in  a  noble  family;  and  here  his  remarkable 
success  in  awakening  the  sleeping  conscience  of  a  dying  sin- 
ner to  a  full  sense  of  his  guilt,  led  to  his  employment  in  the 
mission  of  preaching  repentance;  for  which  purpose  he  be- 
came the  founder  of  a  congregation  or  society  of  clergy,  who 
were  bound  to  devote  themselves  to  the  conversion  of  sin- 
ners, and  the  training  up  of  clergy  for  the  holy  ministry.  They 
traversed  every  part  of  France,  and  engaged  in  the  sacred 
office  wherever  their  assistance,  in  aid  of  the  ordinary  minis- 
try, was  particularly  called  for.  Vincent  lived  to  see  this  in- 
stitution become  very  extensive,  and  highly  approved  by  the 
Church  and  State. 

He  was  also  the  founder  of  many  other  religious  and  char- 


216  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORV.  CH.  XXVI. 

itable  societies,  especially  of  the  Society  of  Charity,  for  at- 
tending on  all  the  poor  sick  persons  in  each  parish;  and  of 
other  societies  for  visiting  the  sick  in  hospitals,  and  for  the 
education  of  girls.  He  also  procured  the  foundation  of  many 
great  hospitals.  He  instituted  spiritual  exercises  for  those 
who  were  about  to  receive  holy  orders,  and  ecclesiastical  con- 
ferences on  the  duties  of  the  clerical  office.  During  the 
wars  in  Lorraine,  hearing  of  the  misery  to  which  the  people 
of  that  province  were  reduced,  he  collected  alms  amongst 
pious  and  charitable  people  at  Paris  to  the  amount  of  100,000/. 
He  was  in  the  highest  favour  with  King  Louis  XIIL  and 
Queen  Anne  of  Austria,  who  consulted  him  on  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  and  on  the  collation  of  benefices. 

Amidst  such  a  multiplicity  of  important  affairs,  his  soul 
was  always  set  on  God.  He  was  remarkable  for  self-denial, 
for  profound  humility,  and  for  a  spirit  of  prayer.  He  laid  it 
down  as  a  rule  of  humility,  that,  if  possible,  a  man  ought 
never  to  talk  of  his  own  concerns;  such  discourse  usually 
proceeding  from,  and  nourishing  in  the  heart,  the  spirit  of 
pride.  At  length,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-four,  this 
pious  and  profitable  servant  of  God  was  called  to  his  ever- 
lasting reward,  amidst  the  veneration  and  love  of  all  men. 
He  died  in  1660,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Laza- 
ru3  at  Paris. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

ON  THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCHES. 

A.D.  1517-1839. 

The  faith  and  discipline  of  the  eastern  or  Greek  Churches 
in  Russia,  Turkey,  Greece,  Asia,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  have  re- 
mained  with  scarcely  any  variation  during  the  whole  of  this 
period.     In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Lutherans  souj^ht  a 


A.D.  1517  1839.  ORIENTAL  CHURCHES.  217 

union  with  the  Constantinopolitan  Church,  but  were  prevented 
by  various  differences  from  accompHshing  their  wish.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  some  intercourse  toolc  place  between 
**le  Constantinopolitan  and  English  Churches.  Cyril  Luca- 
ris,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  dedicated  his  work  on  the 
faith  of  the  Eastern  Church  to  King  Charles  I.,  and  present- 
ed to  him  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  manuscript  of  the 
Bible.  And  in  1653  Dr.  Basire,  archdeacon  of  Northum- 
berland, when  travelling  in  Greece,  was  invited  twice  by  the 
metropolitan  of  Achaia  to  preach  before  the  bishops  and  cler- 
gy ;  and  he  received  from  Paisius,  patriarch  of  J-erusalem, 
his  patriarchal  seal,  to  express  his  desire  of  communion  with 
the  Church  of  England.  The  communion  of  our  Churches 
and  those  of  the  East  has  not,  however,  yet  been  restored.  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  also,  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
was  first  embraced  by  a  portion  of  the  Greek  Church,  though 
many  persons  still  only  make  use  of  the  term,  without  believ 
ing  the  Roman  doctrine  on  the  subject. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Russian 
Church,  which  had  previously  always  been  subject  to  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  became  independent ;  for,  at  the  desire  of 

the  Russians,  a  patriarch  of  Moscow  was  ere-  ^^■r.r. 

1    ,        ,  .      ,  T^  ,  A.D.  1589. 

ated   by  the   eastern  patriarchs.      reter  the 

Great,  in  the  last  century,  suppressed  this  office,  and  appoint- 
ed a  synod  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  Rus-  -,^_ 
sian  Church.  He  also  reformed  several  abuses 
and  corruptions  in  that  Church ;  but  these  improvements  were 
not  relished  by  some  of  the  clergy  and  people,  who  were  at- 
tached  to  the  old  superstitions  and  abuses,  and  who,  like  the 
Romanists  in  England  and  Ireland,  separated                -^„P 
from  the  Church,  and  are  termed  Roskolniks, 
or  schismatics.     Within  the  last  few  years  the  Church  in  the 
newly  created  kingdom  of  Greece  has  also  been  withdrawn 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  see  of  Constantinople,  and  placed 
under  the  direction  of  a  synod  of  bishops :  but  this  has  not 
led  to  any  division  in  the  eastern  Church ;  for,  unlike  the 
19 


218  ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  CH.  XXVIl 

popes,  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  do  not  treat  as  here- 
tics  or  schismatics  every  one  who  is  not  subject  to  their  juris- 
diction.  The  Greek  Church  has  also  recently  gained  a  con- 
siderable addition,  by  the  reunion  of  those  Churches  in  Po. 
land  who  held  the  Greek  rites,  and  which  had  been  for  some 
time  obedient  to  the  pope. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

ON  THE  RISE  AND  PROGRESS  OF  INiTDELITY. 

I  HAVE  already  alluded  to  the  spread  of  infidelity  in  the 
last  century ;  but  a  circumstance  so  deeply  affecting  the  Chris- 
tian Church  deserves  a  more  detailed  notice.  It  is  fearful  to 
contemplate  the  excess  of  wickedness  to  which  God  some- 
times permits  his  enemies  to  proceed.  One  can  hardly  ima- 
gine that  any  human  being  in  his  senses,  who  was  born  in  a 
Christian  land,  and  who  had  been  baptised  and  educated  in  a 
Christian  Church,  could  be  so  far  transported  by  his  passions 
as  to  declare  himself  the  enemy  of  Jesus  Chri-st !  The  heart 
trembles  at  the  very  notion  of  such  blasphemy.  But  that  a 
man  should,  for  nearly  seventy  years,  devote  himself  to  the 
extirpation  of  Christianity ;  to  the  destruction  of  that  faith  which 
alone  consoles  man  amidst  his  afflictions  and  his  fears ;  to 
the  extinction  of  every  principle  of  virtue  and  morality,  and 
the  inculcation  of  general  depravity, — this  opens  to  our  view 
a  deeper  gulf  of  human  guilt  than  even  the  records  of  Scrip- 
ture  supply,  or  the  imagination  could  have  conceived.  Such 
was  Voltaire;  a  man  whose  private  life  was  defiled  by  the 
grossest  immorality,  and  whose  heart  burned  with  such  a  de- 
moniacal hatred  of  Him  who  came  down  from  heaven  and 
voluntarily  sacrificed  himself  on  the  cross  for  the  salvation 
of  sinners,  that  he  adopted  afi  his  watchword  on  all  occa- 
sions those  awful  words,  "  Ecrasez  Pinfame  !" — Crush  the 


CH.  XXVII.  INFIDELITY.  219 

wretch!  that  is,  "Crush  Christ;  crush  the  Christian  reli- 
gion !"     Such  was  the  language  and  the  feeling  of  that  or- 
ganized   band    of  infidels,    who  in  the  earlier  part  of  last 
century  associated  in  the  impious  attempt  to  subvert  Chris 
tianity. 

England  had  been  already  disgraced  by  the  writings  of 
some  unbelievers;  but  the  works  of  Herbert  and  Boling- 
broke,  of  Collins  and  Tindal,  had  produced  little  effect  on  the 
good  sense  and  religious  principles  of  the  English  nation. 
The  clergy  effectually  exposed  their  errors,  and  they  became 
the  objects  of  popular  hatred ;  but  they  were  unhappily  des- 
tined to  find  a  more  congenial  soil  in  France. 

Voltaire  was  born  in  Paris  in  1694,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
eighty-four,  dying  in  the  year  1778.  He  was  endowed  with 
great  natural  abilities,  quickness,  versatility,  wit ;  with  a  re- 
markable power  of  sarcasm ;  and  a  pointed,  easy,  and  fluent 
style,  which  was  unrestrained  by  any  principles  of  truth  or 
decency.  While  he  was  at  college,  he  manifested  so  scepti- 
cal a  spirit,  that  his  preceptor  one  day  said  to  him,  *'  Unfor- 
tunate young  man,  at  some  future  time  you  will  become  the 
standard  bearer  of  infidelity."  After  he  had  left  college,  he 
associated  only  with  persons  of  infamous  morals ;  and  having 
published  some  infidel  opinions,  which  gave  offence  to  the 
ruling  powers  of  France,  he  retired  to  England,  where  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  several  unbelievers  like  himself.  Here 
he  formed  his  resolution  to  destroy  Christianity;  and  on  his 
return  to  Paris,  in  1730,  he  made  no  secret  of  his  design  and 
his  hopes.  "  I  am  weary,"  he  would  say,  "  of  hearing  peo- 
ple repeat  that  twelve  men  were  sufficient  to  establish  Chris- 
tianity.    I  will  prove  that  one  may  suffice  to  overthrow  it." 

In  order  to  accomplish  his  design,  Voltaire  found  it  neces- 
sary  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  several  coadjutors  :  of  these 
D'Alembert  was  the  chief.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  crafty 
cunning,  which  enabled  him  to  insinuate  infidelity  in  the  most 
plausible  and  least  offensive  manner.  His  expressions  were 
generally  moderate  ;  while  Voltaire  used  to  express  his  wish 


220  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXVTI. 

that  he  might  "  die  on  a  heap  of  Cliristians  immolated  at  his 
feet."  Another  associate  was  Frederick  II.,  king  of  Prussia, 
a  great  general  and  statesman,  but  a  shallow  philosopher.  He 
was  in  continual  correspondence  with  Voltaire ;  compliment- 
ed him  on  being  the  "  scourge  of  religion ;"  and  plotted  for 
its  destruction.  Diderot  was  another  coadjutor  of  Voltaire, 
who  with  D' Alembert  devoted  themselves  even  till  death  to  the 
pursuit  of  their  unhallowed  design. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  watchword  of  this  associa- 
tion, the  object  of  which  was  the  overthrow  of  every  altar 
where  Christ  was  worshipped.  It  was  not  merely  the  Galli- 
can  or  Roman  doctrine  which  was  marked  out  for  destruc- 
tion. In  the  latter  part  of  his  career,  Voltaire  exulted  at  the 
dissemination  of  Hume's  infidel  principles  in  England,  and  at 
the  prospect  of  the  fall  of  the  Church  of  England,  exclaim- 
ing with  delight,  that  "  in  London  Christ  wa§  spurned.^^  On 
another  occasion,  he  rejoiced  that  "  in  Geneva,  Calvin's  own 
town,"  but  few  believers  remained. 

Voltaire  invited  men  to  forsake  their  religion  by  promising 
them  liberty  of  thought.  He  declared,  that  *'  nothing  was 
so  contemptible  and  miserable  in  his  eyes,  as  to  see  one  man 
have  recourse  to  another  in  matters  of  faith,  or  to  ask  what 
he  ought  to  believe."  Reason,  liberty,  and  philosophy,  were 
continually  in  the  mouths  of  Voltaire  and  D'Alembert. 
Their  adherents  represented  them  as  "  devoutly  waiting  for 
those  days  when  the  sun  should  shine  only  on  free  men,  ac- 
knowledging no  other  master  but  their  own  reason.'^  Voltaire 
had  but  little  of  the  spirit  of  martyrdom  :  his  continual  exhor- 
tation to  the  conspirators  was,  to  "  strike,  but  conceal  their 
hands;"  that  is,  to  write  anonymously.  "  The  monster" 
(Christianity,)  he  said,  "  must  fall,  pierced  by  a  hundred  in- 
visible hands;  yes,  let  it  fall  beneath  a  thousand  repeated 
blows."  In  accordance  with  this  advice,  the  press  swarmed 
with  anonymous  publications  of  the  most  impious  character. 
The  principal  mode  of  propagating  infidelity  was  the  publica- 
tion of  the  celebrated  Encyclopedia,  of  which  D'Alembert 


CH.  XXVII.  INFII>ELITT.  221 

was  the  editor,  and  which  was  to  contain  so  perfect  an  assem- 
blage of  all  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  to  render  all  other  books 
superfluous.  The  utmost  caution  was  used  in  insinuating 
infidel  principles,  lest  the  design  should  be  detected,  and 
crushed  by  the  hand  of  power.  All  the  principal  articles  on 
religion  were  written  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  offence ; 
while  by  means  of  references  a-t  the  conclusion  of  each,  the 
reader  was  directed  to  places  where  open  infidelity  was  taught, 
[rreligion  and  atheism  were  inculcated  even  in  articles  on 
chemistry,  or  other  sciences,  where  their  existence  could  not 
be  suspected. 

When  this  work  was  completed,  it  obtained  an  immense 
circulation.  Numberless  editions  were  printed,  in  each  of 
which,  under  pretence  of  correction,  more  impiety  was  intro- 
duced. In  one  of  these,  a  respectable  and  learned  divine, 
M.  Bergier,  was  persuaded  into  writing  the  part  which  treat- 
ed of  religion,  lest  it  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  unbeliev- 
ers ;  but  it  was  easy  to  foresee  what  actually  happened :  his 
name  conferred  respectability  on  the  book,  while  all  its  other 
articles  teemed  with  the  most  dreadful  impiety  and  blas- 
phemy. 

Infidelity  now  rapidly  spread  through  France,  and  through 
every  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe  ;  several  of  the  crown- 
ed  heads  were  more  or  less  favourable.  The  Empress  of 
Russia,  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Denmark,  Poland,  Sweden,  and 
all  the  princes  of  Germany,  were  either  admirers  of  Voltaire 
or  avowed  infidels.  The  abominable  licentiousness  of  the 
court  of  France  assisted  the  conspiracy :  the  French  ministry, 
tainted  with  infidelity,  refused  to  put  the  laws  in  force  for  the 
suppression  of  blasphemous,  infidel,  and  immoral  publica- 
tions, which  now  issued  in  a  flood  from  the  press.  The  most 
eminent  scientific  men,  and  the  most  popular  writers  of 
France,  such  as  Buffbn,  Lalande,  Marmontel,  Rousseau,  were 
unbelievers.  It  is  awful  to  contemplate  the  excess  of  wicked- 
ness at  which  these  men  had  arrived.  The  history  of  this 
tirn^  relates,  that  "  above  all  the  adepts  did  a  fiend  named  Con 

19* 


222  ECCLESIASTICAL  mSTORY.  CH.  XXYII. 

dorcet  hate  the  Son  of  God.  At  the  very  name  of  the  Dei- 
ty the  monster  raged !  And  it  appeared  as  if  he  wished  to 
revenge  on  Heaven  the  heart  it  had  given  him."  Infidelity 
had  widely  spread  among  the  higher  orders ;  it  was  now  to 
be  disseminated  amongst  the  lowest.  Infidel  and  blasphemous 
tracts  were  printed  in  myriads,  and  circulated  profusely  in  all 
parts.  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  disputed  on  Christianity  in 
the  coffee-rooms  of  Paris;  and  the  pretended  advocate  of 
Christianity  took  care  always  to  be  defeated. 

It  is  lamentable  to  add,  that  the  clergy  of  the  Roman  com 
munion  were  not  universally  to  be  found  on  the  side  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  ecclesiastical  patronage  of  the  state,  indeed, 
was  too  often  exercised  for  the  subversion  of  religion.  The 
Abbe  Barruel  observes,  with  reference  to  France,  that  "  the 
enemies  of  the  Church  possessed  themselves  of  its  avenues, 
to  prevent  the  preferment  of  those  whose  virtues  or  learning 
they  dreaded.  When  the  bishops  wished  to  repel  an  unwor- 
thy member,  Choiseul,  the  infidel  minister,  replied,  *  such  are 
the  men  we  want  and  will  have.'"  Cardinal  de  Brienne, 
archbishop  of  Toulouse,  was  a  friend  of  D'Alembert,  and 
became  an  open  apostate  from  religion.  He  was  followed  by 
the  bishops  of  Autun,  Viviers,  Orleans,  Lydda,  Babylon,  &c. 
In  the  infidel  association  of  the  "  Illuminati"  were  many 
priests,  and  even  a  high  dignitary  of  the  German  Church. 
The  names  of  the  Abbes  Raynal,  De  Prades,  Condillac,  De 
Leire,  Morrelet,  Terray,  Marsy,  &c.,  are  unhappily  but  too 
well  known  as  connected  with  infidelity.  Numbers  of  Jaco- 
bin and  infidel  priests  were  also  found  in  Italy,  Spain,  and 
other  parts  of  the  Continent.  The  majority,  however,  of  the 
Roman  clergy  throughout  Europe  retained  their  faith,  and, 
under  the  most  grievous  afflictions  and  persecutions  for  the 
name  of  Christ,  evinced  an  increased  measure  of  zeal  and 
piety. 

Voltaire  was  received  with  a  sort  of  popular  triumph  at 
Paris  in  1778 ;  but  very  shortly  after,  this  enemy  of  God  and 
man  expired  in  the  most  dreadful  torments  of  agony  and  re- 


CH.  XXVII.  INFIDELITY.  223 

morse.  His  associates  did  not  long  survive  him;  but  the 
seed  which  they  had  sown  was  now  to  produce  its  bitter  fruit. 

All  religious  and  all  moral  principle  being  now  extinguish- 
ed, and  every  passion  of  man's  nature  being  left  without  con- 
trol,  human  society  perished  amidst  the  horrors  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  1789.  Amidst  rebellion,  anarchy, 
plunder,  desolation,  famine,  massacre,  and  every  imaginable 
evil,  the  reign  of  infidelity  commenced.  The  worship  and 
ministry  of  Christianity  were  proscribed,  and  God  was  no 
longer  acknowledged.  Then  was  beheld  the  woful  spectacle 
of  bishops  and  priests  hastening  to  the  infidel  assembly  of 
France,  casting  from  them  the  ensigns  of  their  ministry,  and 
proclaiming  themselves  no  longer  believers  in  God.  The 
Roman  Church,  scourged  for  her  sins,  and  especially  for  that 
spirit  of  pride  which  resists  all  efforts  for  the  removal  of 
superstitions,  beheld  her  pope  despoiled  of  his  territories,  and 
the  captive  of  Buonaparte ;  her  revenues  plundered  in  France 
and  Italy;  her  monasteries  suppressed;  her  bishops  driven 
from  their  sees  into  exile,  or  dying  beneath  the  guillotine  ;  her 
clergy  perishing  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner,  or  by  more 
wholesale  massacre.  She  beheld  faith  vanishing  away,  and 
a  generation  of  men  arising  without  religion. 

Although  the  return  of  peace  and  order  has  been  favoura- 
ble to  the  restoration  of  Christianity,  and  though  additional 
fervour  may  have  been  added  to  faith  so  sorely  tried  and  af- 
flicted,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  effects  of  the  infidel  conspiracy 
of  last  century  have  been  deep  and  lasting.  It  is  true,  indeed,' 
that  Christianity  has  for  many  years  past  been  less  directly 
assailed;  that  infidelity  may  have  been  less  industriously  pro- 
pagated; but  still  an  infidel  and  perverse  generation  lives 
without  God  in  the  world  ;  and  in  France,  more  especially, 
the  prevalence  of  this  deadly  evil  is  so  great,  that  an  eloquent 
ecclesiastic  of  that  nation  (La  Mennais)  some  years  since 
declared,  that  "  the  state  to  which  we  are  approaching  is  one 
of  the  signs  by  which  will  be  recognised  that  last  war  an- 
oounced  by  Jesus  Christ :    '  nevertheless,  when  the  Son  of 


224  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXVIl. 

man  cometh,  shall  he  find  faith  on  the  earth?'  "      "  What," 
said  he,  "  do  you  perceive  every  where  but  a  profound  indif- 
ference as  to  duties  and  creeds,  with  an  unbridled  love  of 
pleasure  and  of  gold,  by  means  of  which  any  thing  can  be 
obtained  ?    All  is  bought,  for  all  is  sold  ;  conscience,  honour, 
religion,  opinions,  dignities,   power,  consideration,  even  re 
spect :  a  vast  shipwreck  of  all  truths  and  all  virtues."    In 
difference,  total  indifference  to  religion ;  the  uttermost  neg 
lect  and  contempt  of  Christianity,  as  a  thing  unworthy  of 
examination,  are  the  characteristics  of  modern  infidelity  in 
France. 

In  Germany  the  spirit  of  unbelief  assumes  the  name  of 
Rationalism,  and  pretends  to  respect  the  character  of  Christ ; 
while,  under  the  guise  of  Christianity,  it  boldly  subjects  the 
revelation  of  God  to  the  judgment  and  criticisms  of  man's 
reason,  rejects  all  that  is  incomprehensible  by  our  limited 
faculties,  deprives  the  Gospel  of  all  its  peculiar  and  divinely 
revealed  doctrines,  tramples  in  contempt  on  the  universal 
belief  of  all  Christians  from  the  beginning,  arraigns  the 
Scriptures  themselves  falsehood  and  folly ;  and  leaves  the 
mind  at  last  without  one  particle  of  Christian  faith  or  hope- 
This  destructive  system  arose  among  the  Protestants  of  Ger- 
many after  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  It  has  unhappily 
become  almost  universally  prevalent  amongst  them. 

Though  England  has,  through  the  infinite  mercy  of  God, 
been  comparatively  unvisited  by  the  scourges  which  have  so 
terribly  afflicted  the  nations  of  the  Continent,  and  though 
open  infidelity  has  been  always  met,  confronted,  and  subdued 
by  the  energy  of  religious  zeal,  it  cannot  but  inspire  alarm  to 
behold  the  wide  dissemination  of  principles  which  tend,  by  a 
very  short  descent,  to  the  overthrow  of  all  faith.  Such  ap- 
pears to  be  the  character  of  that  most  erroneous  notion,  that 
sincerity  is  the  only  test  of  religion ;  so  that  he  who  per- 
suades himself  that  he  is  right  in  his  faith,  believes  all  that  is 
necessary  for  his  salvation :  for  if  this  be  true,  it  cannot  be 
necessary  to  believe  any  particular  doctrine  of  Christianity ; 


CH.  XXVIII.  CONCLUSION.  225 

it  cannot  be  necessary  to  prefer  Christ  to  Mahomet ;  and  be- 
lief  in  Christ  cannot  be  (as  the  Gospel  says  it  is)  the  condi- 
tion  on  which  men  shall  be  saved.  How  true  is  it  that  the 
Evil  one  clothes  himself  as  an  angel  of  light !  In  the  last 
century  infidelity  appeared  under  the  specious  garb  of  philoso- 
phy  and  freedom  of  thought :  it  is  now  insinuating  itself  un- 
der the  disguise  of  charity,  kindness,  and  liberality.  All 
modes  of  faith  are  treated  with  impartial  favour,  all  are  re- 
garded as  equally  true;  and  the  hour  may  be  at  hand,  when 
the  necessary  conclusion  will  be  drawn,  that  they  are  all 
equally  false.  There  is  much  in  the  spirit  of  the  age  to 
threaten  such  lamentable  results  ; — a  spirit  of  insatiable  in- 
quiry, not  always  accompanied  by  modesty  or  patience;  a 
thirst  for  novelty;  a  superficial  information;  the  adoration 
of  intellect  and  of  knowledge ;  and  the  exclusive  devotion  of 
men  to  sciences  which  relate  to  merely  material  objects.  All 
combine  to  show  the  dangers  to  which  belief  is  exposed ;  and 
to  warn  the  Church  of  God  that  renewed  watchfulness,  and 
humility,  and  zeal,  are  more  than  ever  imperatively  called  for. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

CONCLUSION. 


We  have  now  briefly  traced  the  progress  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  through  eighteen  centuries  of  its  varied  existence. 
In  the  midst  of  temptations  and  dangers,  the  ark  of  eternal 
truth  has  still  been  preserved  by  an  x\lmighty  hand.  That 
'•city  set  on  an  hill,"  that  "ensign"  which  was  once  "set 
up  to  the  Gentiles,"  has  never  been  concealed.  The  Church 
has  always  continued  to  preach  "Christ  crucified"  as  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  world,  and  to  urge  the  necessity  of  believing  and 
obeying  his  words;  and  amidst  the  existing  diversities  of  re. 
ligious  doctrine  it  will  be  found,  that  all  those  churches  which 


226  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXVIII. 

have  not  arisen  from  schism  or  voluntary  separation  from  the 
universal  Church,  agree  to  a  very  great  extent  in  their  be- 
lief. In  proof  of  this,  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  three 
creeds,  called  the  Apostles',  the  Nicene,  and  the  Athanasian, 
are  accepted  and  approved  equally  by  the  Greek  or  Oriental, 
the  British,  and  the  Roman  Churches,  as  well  as  by  the  re- 
lics of  the  foreign  reformation.  The  same  doctrines  which 
were  universally  received  in  the  second  century  are  still  so 
in  the  nineteenth.  All  Churches  believe,  and  with  one  mouth 
confess,  one  God,  who  created  the  world  by  his  only-begotten 
Son,  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  being  co-eternal  with  the 
Father,  and  of  equal  glory,  and  power,  and  majesty,  came 
down  from  heaven  and  became  man  for  our  salvation,  and 
in  his  human  nature  suffered  death  on  the  cross,  and  as- 
cended into  heaven,  making  an  eternal  and  all-sufficient  atone- 
ment and  intercession  for  us.  All  believe  that  the  condition 
of  man  by  nature  is  such,  that  he  is  unable  without  the  aid 
cf  Divine  grace  to  turn  to  God  and  become  pleasing  and  ac- 
ceptable to  him ;  that  to  sinful  man  Divine  grace  is  given  by 
the  free  and  unmerited  mercy  of  God ;  and  that  he  is  enabled 
by  the  sanctifying  influences  of  the  eternal  Spirit  of  God,  the 
third  person  in  the  most  blessed  Trinity,  to  triumph  over  the 
sins  and  infirmities  of  his  nature,  and  to  become  sanctified  by 
faith  and  the  love  of  God,  bringing  forth  the  fruits  of  obe- 
dience. All  believe  that  we  shall  give  an  account  of  our 
works  at  the  last  judgment,  when  the  righteous  shall  be  re- 
warded with  life  eternal,  and  the  wicked  consigned  to  ever- 
lasting fire.  The  holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament are  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  word  of  God, 
given  by  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  sacraments 
instituted  by  Christ  are  celebrated  amongst  all  nations ;  and 
the  same  Christian  ministry  has  descended  by  successive  or- 
dinations of  bishops  from  the  time  of  the  apostles  to  the  pre- 
sent day.  Such  is  the  substantial  and  real  agreement  in 
doctrine  which  exists  between  Churches  which  are  in  some 
respects  dissentient    ^rom  each  other.      Their   differences 


CH.  XXVIII.  CONCLUSION.  227 

turn  chiefly  on  doctrines  and  practices  not  taught  by  our 
Lord,  but  which  some  men  in  later  ages  have  imagined  to  be 
deducible  from  revelation,  or  to  be  allowable  and  justifiable. 
Questions  as  to  the  truth  and  lawfulness  of  such  doctrines  and 
practices  divide  the  Christian  Churches;  but  it  will  probably 
be  found  that  no  article  of  the  faith,  no  doctrine  clearly  and 
distinctly  revealed  by  our  Lord,  is  denied  by  any  of  these 
Churches. 

It  may  be  added,  that  many  even  of  the  sectaries  or  schis- 
matics, who  have  voluntarily  forsaken  the  Church,  still  main- 
tain the  great  mass  of  Christian  doctrine,  however  destitute 
they  may  be  of  Christian  charity. 

The  union  of  the  Christian  Church,  flowing  from  a  common 
faith,  and  hope,  and  charity,  was  indeed  enjoined  and  urged 
by  our  blessed  Lord  and  Saviour ;  but  no  promise  was  given 
that  the  Church  should  at  all  times  be  united  in  external  com- 
munion. The  divisions  which  have  for  a  long  time  existed, 
arose  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  from  the  mistaken  notions  of  the 
papal  authority  entertained  by  the  popes  and  their  adherents 
during  the  eleventh  and  following  centuries.  If  it  should 
please  God  to  open  the  eyes  of  Romanists  to  their  error  on 
this  point,  we  might  have  some  reason  to  hope  for  the  ap- 
proach of  those  happy  days  predicted  in  holy  Scripture,  when 
"  Ephraim  shall  not  envy  Judah,  and  Judah  shall  not  vex 
Ephraim."  On  the  doctrine  of  the  papal  supremacy  the  whole 
mass  of  superstitions  which  we  deplore  to  see  in  the  Roman 
communion  essentially  depends.  It  is  this  doctrine  which  leads 
Romanists  to  view  the  Oriental  and  British  Churches  separated 
from  the  true  Church;  and  which  renders  it  equally  impos- 
sible for  those  Churches  to  hope  for  the  restoration  of  general 
harmony  and  union. 

And  while  we  lament  the  disunion  of  the  Christian  Church, 
we  have  also  to  deplore  the  multitude  of  abuses  and  errors 
which  in  many  parts  of  the  world  choke  the  good  seed  and 
make  it  unfruitful.  Superstitions  which  arose  *'  while  m^n 
slept,"  still  continue,   almost  unchecked  and  unresisted,  to 


228  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  CH.  XXVIII. 

prevail.  The  ignorant  are  in  many  Churches  left  exposed 
to  the  danger  of  honouring  the  creature  instead  of  the  Crea- 
tor, by  the  worship  of  images,  and  the  invocation  of  saints. 
On  all  sides  there  is  much  of  infirmity,  of  imperfection,  and 
of  sin.  Every  Church  and  every  age  has  its  temptations 
and  its  faults.  At  one  peried  there  may  be  a  tendency  to 
superstition;  at  another,  a  tendency  to  self-confidence,  spirit- 
ual pride,  or  irreverence.  Those  who  are  ready  to  reject  all 
usurped  authority  in  religion,  may  not  be  altogether  free  from 
a  spirit  of  pride,  and  a  disposition  to  resist  even  legitimate 
rule.  A  fear  of  bigotry  and  enthusiasm  may  sometimes  be 
found  united  with  slothfulness  and  indifference.  To  every 
Church  and  every  individual,  the  apostolic  precept,  "  Be  not 
high  minded,  but  fear,"  should  be  the  subject  of  continual 
meditation  and  prayer.  It  is  only  in  this  spirit  that  we  should 
ever  dwell  on  the  faults  of  others,  or  on  the  blessings  which 
the  mercy  of  God  has  vouchsafed  to  bestow  on  ourselves. 

But,  amidst  our  sorrows  for  the  numerous  evils  with  which 
the  sin  and  infirmity  of  human  nature  have  afflicted  the 
Church,  we  are  consoled  by  the  perpetuity  of  the  Church  it- 
self, and  by  the  many  examples  of  Christian  sanctity  which 
have  in  every  age  adorned  our  holy  faith.  Nothing  can  more 
powerfully  prove  to  us  the  presence  of  God  with  his  Church, 
than  the  lives  of  those  men  whom  Divine  grace  has  trans- 
formed into  the  image  of  Christ.  There  is  in  true  religion  a 
REALITY  which  comcs  home  to  the  heart  of  every  one  ;  which 
stimulates  the  feeblest  faith,  and  animates  the  most  languid 
oharity. 


TUB  END. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PALMER'S  COMPENDIOUS  ECCLESIASTICAL 
HISTORY. 

CHAPTER   I. INTRODUCTION. 

Pagb.  Question. 

1  1.  What  impressive  lesson  is  derived  from  the  history  of  the  world  ? 

2.  What  counteracting  tendency  is  visible  in  the  history  of  the  Church  ? 

3.  How  has  true  religion  essentially  been  always  the  same? 

2  4.  With  what  inclinations  has  it  had  to  contend? 
5.  W^hat  is  the  life  of  a  true  Christian? 

3  6.  How  is  the  Church  of  Christ  described  in  Scripture  ? 

7.  What  external  trials  was  it  to  endure  ? 

8.  What  dangers  from  heretical  teachers  ? 

4  9.  What  has  saved  the  Church  from  destruction? 

10.  What  promises  have  been  given  by  the  Saviour? 

11.  In  what  respects  does  the  History  of  the  Church  differ  from  other 

histories,  and  what  proofs  of  the  truth  of  Christianity  are  thereby 
afforded  ? 

12.  Into  how  many  periods  may  it  be  divided  ? 

6  13.  Give  the  limits  and  character  of  the  1st  period? 

14.  "  "  2nd    « 

15.  "  "  3rd     " 

16.  "  "  4th     " 

17.  "  "  5th     « 


CHAPTER  II. — EARLY  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. — A.  D.  30 — 320 

6  1.  To  what  is  the  Church  compared  in  Scripture  ? 

2.  How  has  the  event  corresponded  with  the  predictions  ? 

3.  What  commission  did  Christ  give,  and  when? 

4.  How  many  disciples  were  assembled  after  our  Lord's  ascension.' 

5.  How  was  their  number  increased,  and  when? 

6.  To  what  city  was  it  as  yet  confined  ? 

7  7.  What  good  effect  had  the  persecution  at  Jerusalem?  give  the  date? 

8.  Whither  was  Christianity  extended  ? 

9.  What  effect  had  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul  upon  the  Gentiles?  des- 

cribe his  journeys  :  What  is  the  date  of  his  martyrdom? 

8  10.  Where  did  the  other  apostles  labour? 

11.  To  whom  does  St.  Peter  address  his  1st  Epistle?  Whence  does  he 

date  it? 

12.  What  Church  did  St.  Mark  found  ? 

13.  What  other  countries  are  said  to  have  been  visited? 

14.  What  is  the  testimony  of  Tacitus,  and  the  date? 

9  15.  What  is  the  language  and  the  date  of  the  letter  of  Pliny? 

16.  Give  the  testimony  of  Justin  Martyr:  of  Irenaeus:  of  TertuUian : 
and  their  respective  dates? 
10  17.  What  nations  were  converted  during' the  next  century? 

15.  Who  was  the  first  Christian  Emperor? 


CHAPTER    III. OF  THE  FAITH   OF  THE   CHURCH 

10  1.  What  did  the  promises  of  Christ  to  his  disciples  imply? 
2.  What  conclusion  may  we  hence  derive? 

11  3.  What  weight  is  due  to  the  confession  of  Irenaeus? 
4.  What  are  the  doctrines  he  sets  forth? 

6.  How  does  he  say  they  were  received  by  the  Church  of  his  day  ? 
20 


230  QUESTIONS  ON  palmek's  compendious 

Page.  Question. 

11  6.  Show  their  agreement  with  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  creed? 

12  7.  What  says  Pliny  as  to  the  worship  of  Christ? 

8.  What  does  the  coiidemnation  of  heretics  illustrate? 

9.  How  were  Theodotus  and  Artemon  treated  at  Rome?  the  date? 

10.  How  was  Paul  of  Samosata  treated  at  Antioch?  the  date  ? 

11.  What  does  the  Epistle  of  the  Synod  state? 

12.  What  was  the  error  of  Praxeas,  Noetus,  and  Sabellius ;  and  hon 

was  it  received  by  the  Church?  the  date? 

13  13.  What  were  the  heresies  of  the  Gnostics,  and  Mauichseans  ? 


CHAPTER  IV. — rRTJITS  OF  TAITH  :   MARTTRS. 

1.  How  has  the  power  of  true  faith  been  especially  exhibited  ^ 

2.  What  hope  encouraged  them? 

3.  What  afflictions  did  they  endure? 

14  4.  Who  were  their  earliest  enemies? 

5.  Who  was  the  first  great  persecutor  ?  the  date  ? 

6.  What  is  the  description  given  by  Tacitus  ? 

7.  What  punishments  were  inflicted  ? 

15  8.  How  did  the  heathen  regard  the  steadfastness  of  the  suflferers? 
9.  What  Apostles  perished  in  this  persecution? 

10.  Under  what  emperor  was  the  next  persecution?  the  date? 

11.  What  befell  the  Apostle  St.  John? 

12.  What  other  persecutions  took  place  ? 

13.  Which  of  these  was  the  most  severe  ? 

16  14.  What  is  the  date  of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp? 

15.  What  account  have  we  of  it  ? 

16.  Did  he  flee  from  persecution? 

17.  How  did  he  behave  when  arrested  ? 

18  18.  What  was  the  character  of  his  prayer? 

19.  What  was  he  persuaded  to  off"er :  and  how  was  he  treated  on  refusingf 

20.  How  was  he  received  in  the  amphitheatre  ? 

21.  What  did  the  proconsul  tell  him  to  do? 

22.  What  was  his  reply? 

18  23.  How  long  had  he  been  a  Christian? 

24.  What  did  he  say  of  future  punishment  ? 

25.  How  was  his  confession  received  by  the  multitude  ' 

19  26.  To  what  death  was  he  sentenced? 

27.  Who  especially  aided  in  his  execution? 

28.  For  what  did  he  give  thanks  to  God,  when  at  the  stake? 

29.  What  confession  did  he  make  in  this  prayer? 

20  30.  What  appearance  is  said  to  have  been  exhibited  at  his  death  j  and 

how  may  it  be  accounted  for? 

31.  What  did  his  enemies  endeavour  to  prevent  ? 

32.  What  does  the  epistle  teach  as  to  the  worship  of  Christ? 

33.  Name  some  other  martyrs  for  the  truth? 


CHAPTER  V. FRUITS  OF  FAITH  :    LIVES  OF  CHRISTIANS. 

21  1.  Was  the  profession  of  faith  easy  at  this  time  ? 

2.  What  was  the  effect  on  the  true  followers  of  Christ  ? 

3.  Whai  has  been  the  result  of  the  cessation  of  persecution? 

4.  What  has  increased  in  later  ages? 

5.  What  was  evidenced  in  the  lives  of  the  early  Christians  » 

22  6.  Give  the  testimony  of  Justin  Martyr? 
7.  How  did  Christians  show  their  charity? 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  231 

Paqe    QucaTioN 

22  8.  How  often  was  the  Holy  Eucharist  administered  ? 
9.  What  does  Tertullian  say  of  christian  marriages  ? 

10.  Between  whom  only  ought  they  to  be  contracted  ? 

11.  What  is  said  of  St.  Ignatius  ?  his  date  ? 

23  12.  Of  Justin  Martyr?  of  Polycarp  ?  the  dates? 

13.  Of  Irenaeus?  his  date  ? 

14.  Of  Tertullian?  Clement  of  Alexandria  ?  Origen?  Cyprian  ?  Dionysius? 

15.  How  long  are  miracles  said  to  have  continued? 


CHAPTER  VI. COMMUNION,  RITES  AND  DISCIPLINE. 


24     I.  What  precept  is  especially  inculcated  in  Scripture 


2.  What  duty  hence  arises  as  to  Church  Commun 


ion 


3.  How  did  the  Apostles  regard  schism? 

4.  When  did  Church  Communion  exist  in  greatest  perfection  ? 

5.  How  was  it  manifested  in  the  days  of  the  AjJostles? 

6.  Did  it  continue  after  their  decease? 

25  7.  What  were  letters  commendatory? 

8.  Why  was  the  Epistle  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome  Avritten? 

9.  What  other  epistles  are  mentioned  ? 

10.  What  does  Dionysius  say  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  the  2nd  century? 

1 1 .  What  is  the  testimony  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  in  the  next  century? 

12.  What  instances  of  contention  are  there  even  in  the  times  of  the 

Apostles  ? 

13.  State  the  particulars  of  the  contest  concerning  Easter  ;  and  when 

it  happened  ? 

26  14.  State  the  difference  between  Stephen  of  Rome  and  the  African 

Churches  ? 

15.  What  was  the  result  of  this  difference  ? 

16.  What  was  the  difference   between  these  dissensions  and  formal 

schisms  ? 

17.  What  was  the  effect  of  each? 

18.  What  was  the  Novatian  schism  and  when  did  it  happen  ? 

19.  What  was  the  Donatist  schism?  when?  how  long  did  it  last? 
37  20.  How  were  these  separations  regarded  in  the  early  church? 

21.  Of  what  does  Justin  Martyr  give  a  full  account  ? 

22.  What  qualifications  does  he  mention  for  baptism  ? 

23.  What  does  he  call  baptism  and  those  baptized  ? 

24.  What  does  he  say  of  the  mode  of  baptism? 

25.  How  were  all  converts  made  members  of  the  Christian  Church? 

26.  What  was  done  when  infants  were  baptized  ? 

27.  How  early  at  least  was  the  practice  of  infant  baptism? 

28.  What  was  the  question  in  Cyprian's  time  ? 

28  29.  Were  infants  admitted  to  circumcision? 

30.  What  did  our  Lord  do  to  little  children? 

31.  What  is  said  o(  households  in  the  New  Testament  ? 

32.  What  conclusion  did  the  church  draw  therefrom? 

33.  What  rite  followed  baptism  ? 

34.  What  did  the  apostles  do  to  those  baptized  ? 

35.  What  does  Tertullian  say  of  it? 

36.  Why  was  confirmation  generally  administered  soon  after  baptism  ? 

37.  What  does  Justin  say  of  assemblies  for  public  worship  ? 

29  38.  W^hat  is  said  of  the  consecration  of  the  bread  and  wine  ? 

39.  What  was  done  with  it  when  consecrated  ? 

40.  What  name  was  given  it,  and  who  only  were  permitted  to  receive  itf 

41.  How  did  the  Christians  receive  and  regard  it  ? 

42.  What  does  he  say  of  the  institution  of  this  sacrament  ? 


232  QL'CSTIOXS  ON  PALMER'S  COMPENDIOUS 

Page    Question. 

30  43.  Whom  did  they  bless  in  their  offerings  ? 

44.  How  did  they  observe  Sunday  ? 

45.  What  collections  did  they  make,  and  for  what  purpose  ? 

46.  Why  did  they  assemble  on  Sunday  ? 

47.  What  confession  of  faith  was  made  previous  to  baptism  ? 

48.  What  did  Philip  require  of  the  Eunuch? 

49.  How  ancient  are  creeds  ?  the  Apostles'  ?  the  Nicene  ? 

31  50.  How  many  liturgies  were  there  in  the  4th  century  ? 
51.  Where  were  they  severally  employed  ? 

62.  What  power  had  each  church  ? 

53.  Which  liturgy  does  the  Englishj^and  American  most  resemble  ? 

64.  What  was  the  nature  of  peni,tence  for  secret  sins  ? 

65.  What  penitence  did  the  Church  require  for  public  ones  ? 

32  56.  What  was  the  discipline  observed? 

57.  What  was  done  when  the  time  was  finished  ? 

58.  What  was  the  office  of  the  penitentiary  ?  when  instituted  ? 

59.  Why  was  it  di«ontinued  and  when? 

33  60.  Of  what  orders  did  tlie  ministry  instituted  by  the  Apostles  consisl  \ 

61.  What  does  Irenceus  say  on  the  subject? 

62.  Where  was  Timothy  placed  ?  where  Titus  ? 

63.  For  how  long  jvas  episcopal  government  only  recognized  ? 

64.  Which  were  the  chief  sees  ? 

65.  How  were  all  bishoprics  regarded  as  to  spiritual  authority? 

66.  How  were  the  clergy  appointed  ? 

67.  What  was  ordination  ? 

68.  How  was  the  bishop  aided  ?  what  did  he  administer  ? 

34  69.  What  was  administered  to  the  dying? 


CHAPTER    VII. THE    SIX    CECUMENICAL    SYNODS. A.  D-  320 G80 

1.  What  dangers  assailed  the  Church  when  persecution  ceased  ? 

2.  What  arch  heretic  first  arose  ?  the  date  ? 

3.  How  long  did  Arianism  disturb  the  Church? 

4.  What  was  the  doctrine  it  taught? 

35  5.  Of  whom  did  the  council  at  Knee  consist?  the  date? 

6.  What  was  the  decree  pronounced  ?  » 

7.  What  creed  was  then  established  and  how  was  it  received? 

5.  What  did  the  Arians  now  strive  to  effect  ? 

9.  Wlio  was  the  chief  object  of  their  hostility :  of  what  was  he  ac- 
cused ? 
10.  What  did  the  Meletians  allege  against  him  ? 

36  11.  When  was  the  Synod  of  Tyre  held,  and  for  what  purpose? 

12.  Whither  was  Athanasius  banished  ? 

13.  What  was  the  end  of  Arius  ? 

14.  What  became  of  Athanasius  under  Constantius  ? 

37  15.  To  whom  did  he  appeal  ? 

16.  When  was  the  council  of  Sardica  held,  and  what  did  it  decide? 

17.  Relate  the  restoration  of  Athanasius  ? 

38  IS.  Why  were  the  Synods  of  Aries  and  Milan  held,  and  where  ? 
19.  What  remarkable  escape  had  Athanasius  ? 

39  20.  When  was  the  council  of  Ariminumheld  ?  what  creed  was  there 

proposed  ?  what  temporary  triumph  was  gained  ? 

21.  What  did  France  and  Italy  declare  ? 

22.  What  was  done  in  Egypt  about  the  same  time  ? 

23.  What  happened  under  Julian  ? 

40  24.  Describe  the  final  triumph  of  the  Nicene  faith? 

25.  To  what  was  Arianisnj  indebte(l»for  its  temporary  power? 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  238 

Page    Question. 

41  26.  What  heres-y  next  arose  ? 

27.  In  what  council  was  it  condemned  ?  when? 
2S.  What  oilier  heresies  broke  out? 
29.  Wliat  lieatheu  countries  were  converted  ? 
SO.  What  troubles  now  arose  ?  where  ? 

42  31.  Who  invaded  Africa? 

32.  What  was  the  influence  on  learning? 

33.  What  did  Pelagius  teach?  where  did  he  live  ? 

34.  How  were  his  doctrines  generally  regarded? 

35.  What  did  the  council  of  Carthage  decree?  when  ? 

43  36.  Who  was  Nestorius?  what  did  he  teach? 

37.  When  was  the  council  of  Ephesus  held?  what  did  it  d-ecree  ? 

44  38.  Wheredid  the  Nestorians  establish  themselves  ? 

39.  What  error  did  Eutyches  teach,  who  supported  him  1 

40.  When  was  the  council  of  Chalcedon  held  :  of  how  many  bishops 

did  it  consist? 

41.  What  decree  did  it  pass? 

42.  What  name  is  given  to  the  adherents  of  Dioscorus? 

45  43.  What  conversions  took  place  about  this  time  ? 

44.  By  whom  was  Ireland  converted  ? 

45.  What  Frank  monarch  received  baptism  ?  when? 

46.  What  controversy  now  arose  in  the  East?  . 

47.  Where  was  the  olh  (Ecumenical  Svnod  held? 

46  48.  What  mission  was  sent  to  Britain  ?  by  whom?  when? 

49.  Did  the  ancient  British  Church  still  subsist? 

50.  What  was  the  Monothelite  heresy?    who  were  its  principal  sup- 

porters? 

47  51.  What  was  the  6th  CEcumenical  Synod  ?  when  held  ^ 

52.  What  is  said  of  Honorius  of  Rome  ? 

53.  What  is  to  be  observed  of  subsequent  Synods? 

54.  What  impostor  now  arose  in  the  East?  the  date  ? 

55.  What  became  of  the  Church  in  Africa  ? 

56.  Has  Christianity  survived  in  the  East? 

48  67.  What  European  nations  were  converted  ?  by  whom  ? 


CHAPTER    VIII. FRUITS   OF   FAITH. SAINTS   AND   MARTYRS. 

1.  How  has  the  promise  of  Christ  been  thus  far  verified  ? 

49  2.  Into  what  two  classes  may  the  holy  men  of  this  period  be  divided? 

3.  Who  first  exhibited  the  monastic  life  ? 

4.  Is  it  easy  to  appreciate  justly  the  ascetic  system  of  this  age  ? 

5.  What  influence  has  the  world  upon  the  heart  ? 

50  6.  What  was  the  practice  of  many  of  the  early  Christians  ? 

7,  What  was  the  life  they  led  ? 

8.  What  was  their  intention  in  so  doing? 

51  9.  Of  what  country  was  Antony?  when  did  he  live? 
10.  Relate  some  particulars  of  his  life  ? 

52  11.  What  is  said  of  his  humility  and  learning?  of  his  charity? 
12.  How  did  he  regard  Arianism  ? 

53  13.  What  did  he  say  of  his  burial? 

14.  What  were  the  rules  of  the  monasteries  ? 

54  15.  In  what  E.  countries  did  this  institution  spread? 

16.  By  whom  was  it  introduced  into  the  W.f 

17.  What  duties  were  fulfilled  by  those  who  entered  into  it? 

55  IS.  Into  what  errors  did  Eustathius  fall? 

19.  What  was  the  conduct  of  Simeon  Slylites?  his  character? 

56  20    Givr  an  account  of   Hilary  of  Poicliers  :  of  Eusebins  of  VercellJB 

20* 


234  QUESTIONS  ON   PALMER'S  COMPENDIOUS 

Page.  Question. 

56  20     of  Lucifer  of  Cagliari:  Eusebius  of  Caesarea:  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  ! 

57  21.  What  at  first  was  the  profession  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours? 

22.  How  is  it  said  he  was  converted? 

23.  How  (lid  he  behave  among  the  robbers  ? 

24.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  as  bishop? 

58  25.  How  did  he  treat  the  emperor  Maximus? 

26.  Give  some  account  of  Basil:  of  what  place  was  he  bishop? 

59  How  was  he  distin2;uished  against  the  Arians? 

27.  Also  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzum:  of  what  places  was  he  bishop? 

(iO  28.  Who  was  Ambrose  ?  of  what  see  was  he  archbishop  ?  what  was  his 
character?  how  did  he  resist  Theodosius? 

61  29. For  what  was  St.  John  Chrysostom  distinguished?  of  what  see  was 

he  bishop  ?  why  was  he  deposed  ?  where  did  he  die  ? 

62  30.  Give  some  account  of  Jerome. 

31.  Of  what  country  was  Augustine  a  native?  what  was  his  early  life  ? 

how  was  he  converted  ?  of  what  see  was  he  bishop  ?  for  what  is 

63  he  celebrated  ? 

32.  Against  what  parties  did  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  Leo  of  Rome 

contend  ? 

33.  Who  was  St.  Benedict? 


CHAPTER   IX. — UNITY  AND   DISCIPLINE   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

1.  What  christian  Church  early  obtained  distinction?  why? 

64  2.  What  constituted  the  patriarchate  of  Rome  ?  by  whom  approved  ? 

3.  What  power  did  the  council  of  Sardica  give  this  see?  was  it  gene- 

rally approved  of? 

4.  What  encroachment  was  made  in  the  4th  century?  in  the  5th  and 

in  the  6th? 

5.  What  pretence  was  set  up  for  this  claim  ? 

65  6.  How  was  the  asking  of  its  advice  interpreted  ? 

7.  Did  any  good  effects  result  from  the  influence  of  this  see? 

8.  What  was  forbidden  in  the  third  general  council  ? 

9.  How  did  this  apply  to  the  case  of  Britain  ? 

66  10.  What  rival  see  now  rose  into  dignity?  what  were  the  several  steps? 

11.  Who  were  the  other  patriarchs; 

12.  Was  the  Communion  of  the  Church  interrupted  ?  in  what  cases  ? 

67  Athanasius?  Chrysostom?  Acacius?  5th  Synod? 

13.  What  dispute  arose  between  the  British  and  Roman  churches? 

14.  What  effect  had  these  withdrawals  of  communion? 

68  15.  What  principle  was  still  kept  in  view? 


CHAPTER   X. — RISE   OF  ABUSES   AND  CORRUPTIONS. 

68  1.  Into  what  did  the  faith  of  the  early  christians  sometimes  degenev« 

ate:  the  causes? 
2.  How  did  the  invocation  of  saints  arise  ? 

69  3.  When  was  it  first  introduced  into  litanies  ? 

4.  How  were  the  relics  of  saints  and  martyrs  regarded  ? 

5.  What  abuses  hence  arose  ? 

6.  When  were  they  placed  in  churches  ? 

70  7.  What  were  pilgrimages  ? 

8.  Wliat  effect  had  they  on  the  ancient  discipline? 

9.  What  use  was  made  of  pictures  and  sculpture? 

10.  What  did  Epiphanius?  Serenus?  Gregory  the  great?  in  relatioato 
them. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  335 

Page.  Question. 

71  11.  What  was  the  earliest  miraculous  gift  in  the  Church  ?  'Rrhy  ? 

12  What  language  did  each  nation  employ  in  worship  ?  give  examples? 
13.  Why  was  the  Latin  language  used  in  the  west  ? 

72  14.  Where  was  it  erroneously  used  ? 

15.  What  evil  effect  had  its  adoption  ? 

16.  What  vpas  the  rule  of  the  E.  churches  ia  relation  to  the  marriage 

of  the  clergy? 

17.  When  was  it  first  prohibited  in  the  W.  church?  and  when  finally 

73  enforced  ? 

J  8.  What  was  the  opinion  of  the  early  church  as  to  the  righteous  after 
death? 

19.  What  prayers  did  they  offer?  why  ? 

20.  State  the  opinion  of  Origen?  of  Augustine? 

21.  What  view  did  Gregory  the  Great  hold  ?  how  was  it  received? 

74  22.  When  was  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  declared  an  article  of  faith' 


CHAPTER    XI. PROGRESS   OF   CHRISTIANITY. 680 1054. 

1.  What  was  the  general  state  of  things  during  this  period  ? 

2.  Was  the  authority  of  the  laws  regarded  ? 

3.  What  incursions  were  made  by  barbarous  nations  ? 

.  4.  Are  we  able  to  discern  the  fulfilment  of  Christ's  promise  and  how  i 

75  5.  What  progress  did  the  Saracens  make  ? 

6.  Did  they  extirpate  Christianity  in  the  countries  conquered  ? 

7.  Where  did  Boniface  labour? 

8.  How  was  Bavaria  converted  ? 

9.  What  other  countries  received  the  gospel? 

76  10.  How  did  Charlemagne  extend  it? 

11.  What  N.  nations  were  converted? 

12.  What  missions  were  carried  on  by  the  E.  Church? 

13.  Give  some  account  of  the  conversion  of  Russia? 

14.  —  —  of  the  Normans :  of  Poland  ? 

77  15.    —  _  of  Hungary? 


CHAPTER   XII. FAITH   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

1.  What  doctrines  were  still  universally  believed  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  Elipandus  ? 

3.  Of  the  Paulicians  ? 

78  4.  Of  Berengarius  ? 

5.  How  were  the  Scriptures  regarded  ? 

6.  What  was  the  chief  controversy? 

7.  What  superstitions  prevailed  in  relation  to  images  ? 

8.  What  Greek  emperors  opposed  them  ? 

79  9.  What  synod  condemned  their  use  ? 

10.  How  were  they  used  in  the  W.  Church  at  this  time  ? 

11.  What  did  the  synod  at  Nice  decree? 

12.  How  did  the  E.  and  W.  Churches  receive  this  decree  ? 

13.  How  do  their  historians  speak  of  this  synod  ? 

80  14.  What  was  the  course  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  ? 

15.  What  was  the  intention  of  the  Church  in  allowing  the  use  of  images  ? 

16.  Why  were  they  removed  at  the  Reformation? 

17.  What  was  the  opinion  of  Agobard  ? 

18.  What  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  in  relation  to  the  Eucharist 

19.  What  view  did  Paschasius  Ratbert  hold  ? 
61  20.  What  errors  did  Scotus  fall  into  ? 


236  QUESTIONS  ON  PALMER  S  COMPENDIOUS 

Page.  Question. 

81  21.  To  what  Churches  was  this  controversy  confined  ? 

22.  What  was  the  practice  as  to  private  confession  ? 

23.  What  views  were  held  concerning  its  necessity? 

82  24.  What  did  the  council  of  Cavaillon  acknowledge  ? 

25.  What  does  Gratian  say? 

26.  What  did  the  council  of  Lateran  direct  ? 

27.  What  did  many  Romish  writers  still  maintain? 

83  28.  What  did  the  council  of  Trent  decree  ? 


CHAPTER    XIII. FRUITS   OF   FAITH. 

1.  What  difficulties  did  religion  suffer  under? 

2.  What  usurpations  and  desecrations  of  Church  revenues  ensued  ? 

3.  With  what  were  bishops  and  monasteries  often  invested  ?  wb^jre  ? 

4.  Were  churches  and  monasteries  always  respected  ? 

5.  What  was  the  effect  on  learning? 

84  6.  Were  these  evils  always  regarded  with  unconcern? 

7.  What  was  the  language  of  Hervey  and  his  fellow  bishops?  v^ha*. 
does  he  say  of  the  clergy  ?  of  the  laity  ? 

85  8.  WTiat  are  the  characteristics  of  the  religion  of  this  period  ? 
9.  What  efforts  were  made  for  the  heathen  ? 

10.  What  was  the  conduct  of  many  monarchs? 

86  11.  Who  was  Beda?  state  his  learning — his  works — his  virtues — his 

letter  to  Egbert — his  views  as  to  the  communion — his  death — 

87  what  did  he  translate  ? 

12.  Give  an  account  of  Luitprand — 

13.  —    —      —  Carloman — 

88  14.    —    —      —  Charlemagne — of  his  zeal  for  religion — his  cha- 

rity— 
15.    —    —      —  the  emperor  Louis. 

89  16.  Who  was  St.  Boniface  ?   where  did  he  labour  ?  why  did  he  go  tr 

Rome  ?  what  proof  is  there  of  his  courage  ?  how  did  he  esteem 
the  Scriptures? 

90  17.  What  was  he  made  afterwards?  what  council  did  he  hold  ? 

18.  What  were  his  views  of  his  office  ? 

19.  To  what  country  did  he  afterwards  go  ?  what  was  his  success  ? 

91  20.  Give  an  account  of  his  death  ? 

21.  —    —      —      of  Gregory  :  how  did  he  treat  the  robbers  ?  sho\% 

92  his  charity  ?  his  faith  and  devotion  ? 

22.  Give  an  account  of  Lebuin  ?  his  boldness  for  the  truth? 

93  23.  What  remarkable  instance  of  martyrdom  is  related  ? 

94  24.  State  the  advice  of  Lupus  to  Godeschalch  ? 

25.  —     the  instructions  of  the  council  of  Pavia? 

26.  How  were  the  people  instructed  ? 

27.  What  did  Jonas  recommend  ? 

28.  For  what  was  Wolfgang  distinguished  ? 

95  29.  Who  was  Fidus  ?  give  some  examples  of  his  zeal  ? 

30.  Who  was  Alfred?  show  his  reputation — his  charity — ^his  zeal  for 
religion — his  study  of  the  Scriptures  ? 

96  31.  How  did  he  restore  learning?  what  school  did  he  encourage  ?  whal' 

works  did  he  translate  ? 
32.  What  does  he  say  of  the  ignorance  of  the  people  ? 

97  33.  How  was  his  piety  tried  ? 

34.  Give  some  account  of  Nilus — his  mode  of  life — 

98  35.    his  humility' — his  meekness — his  poverty — 

99  36.    his  view  of  rites — of  the  proper  subjects  of  inquiry — his  freedom 

from  ambition  —the  honors  he  received  from  the  pope  ? 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  237 

Page.  Question. 

100  37.  For  what  did  he  censure  his  monks? 

38.  Why  did  he  not  seek  the  company  of  the  great  ? 

CHAPTER    XIV ABUSES   AND   CORRUPTIONS. 

1.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  ignorance  and  disorder  of  this  period  ? 

101  2.  What  is  said  of  the  invocation  of  saints  ? 

3.  To  what  was  the  ignorance  of  religion  in  a  great  degree  owing' 

4.  What  means  of  instruction  still  existed? 

5.  What  attention  was  paid  to  the  Eucharist  ? 

6.  What  parable  of  our  Lord  was  now  illustrated  ? 

102  7.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  monasteries? 

8.  What  is  said  of  Odo  ? 

9.  What  effect  had  the  temporal  possessions  granted  to  the  clergy  ? 
10.  What  interference  of  princes  was  caused  ? 

103  11.  What  authority  did  the  bishops  assume  ? 

12.  State  the  case  of  Wamba  :  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire  ? 

13.  Of  Adrian  IL  and  Charles  the  Bald  :  of  Gregory  IV.? 

14.  For  what  causes  were  excommunications  granted  ? 

15.  What  forgery  was  now  devised  ? 

104  16.  What  was  the  purport  of  these  epistles? 

17.  By  whom  were  they  supported  ? 

18.  What  injury  to  the  discipline  of  Churches  was  occasioned  ? 


CHAPTER   XV. — DIVISION   OF   E.  AND  W.  CHURCHES. 

1.  What  part  did  the  popes  take  in  the  image  controversy  ? 

2.  What  did  the  E.  emperors  do  ? 

105  3.  What  was  the  effect  ? 

4.  What  was  the  view  of  the  W.  Church  generally  ? 
6.  What  dispute  arose  in  the  9th  century  f 

6.  State  the  case  of  Photius  ? 

7.  How  was  the  matter  settled  ? 

106  8.  What  new  controversy  arose  in  the  11th  century  ? 
9.  How  was  it  occasioned  ? 

10.  What  did  the  legate  of  Rome  demand? 

11.  What  was  the  result  ? 


CHAPTER   XVI. PROGRESS   OF   CHRISTIANITY.-  -1J54 1517. 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  this  period  ? 

107  2.  What  spirit  pervaded  the  Romish  see  ? 

3.  What  works  were  still  carried  on  ? 

4.  Who  was  Boleslaus?  whom  did  he  invite? 

5.  What  measures  did  Otto  take? 

6.  Where  did  he  first  go  ?  how  was  he  received  ? 

108  7.  Describe  his  exhortations  .  his  mode  of  baptism  ? 

109  8.  What  instructions  did  he  give  his  converts? 

10.  Whither  did  he  afterwards  proceed  ? 

11.  State  his  boldness  at  Stetten  ? 

110  12.  Relate  the  particulars  of  his  second  visit? 

13.  What  N.  Island  was  converted? 

14.  What  idol  did  they  worship? 

15.  What  warning  do  we  hence  derive  ? 

111  16.  What  other  N.  nation  was  converted  ? 


236  QUESTIONS  ON  PALMER  S  COMPENDIOUS 

Page.  Question. 

111  17.  What  chasge  was  effected  with  the  Armenians? 

18.  —        —      and  the  Maronites  ? 

19.  State  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  Livonia? 

20.  —        —        —  —        —      into  Prussia  ? 

112  21.  What  checks  did  the  Saracens  receive? 

22.  What  efforts  were  made  in  Tartary  ?  and  in  China  ? 

23.  What  Europc-m  nation  was  last  converted  ? 

24.  What  effect  had  tiie  conquests  of  the  Portugusese  ? 

25.  —       —       —  —         and  of  the  Spaniards  ? 


CHAPTER   XVII --THE    FAITH   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

113  1.  In  what  respects  did  ti  >.  faith  of  the  E.and  W.  Churches  still  agree? 

2.  What  was  the  chief  point  of  doctrinal  differences  ? 

3.  What  was  held  on  the  subject  of  purgatory? 

4.  What  doctrines  were  universally  maintained? 

114  5.  What  heretics  were  condemned? 

6.  What  did  the  Lateran  council  decree  ? 

7.  What  did  the  W.  Church  hold  as  to  the  cause  of  man^s  salvation? 

8.  How  is  this  proved  ? 

115  9.  What  error  was  afterwards  introduced  ?  and  by  whom? 

116  10.  What  claim  of  the  popes  was  now  made  an  article  of  faith? 

11.  Did  the  E.  Church  allow  it  ? 

12.  What  did  the  synod  of  Florence  decree  as  to  purgatorv? 

117  13.  When  was  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  established 

14.  Was  the  word  used  by  all  in  the  same  sense  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  existence  of  errors  in  the  Church  ? 


CHAPTER   XVIII. FRUITS   OF   FAITH- 

118  1.  Give  an  account  of  the  early  days  of  St.  Anselm? 

2.  What  did  he  afterwards  become  ?  "what  were  his  studies  ? 

119  3.  What  promotion  did  he  receive  from  William  Rufus? 

4.  What  is  remarkable  in  his  election  and  consecration  ? 

5.  Why  did  he  retire  from  his  see  ? 

6.  How  was  he  received  in  Italy  ? 

120  7.  When  did  he  return  to  England  and  what  was  his  after  courst 
8.  What  was  the  character  of  Anselm? 

121  9.  Give  an  account  of  St.  Bernard  ? 
10.  How  did  he  study  the  Scriptures? 

122  11.  Of  what  monastery  was  he  made  abbot  ?  its  character  ? 
12.  What  influence  had  Bernard  ? 

123  13.  What  is  said  of  Homobonus? 

14.  —        —    of  the  Schoolmen? 

15.  Give  an  account  of  St.  Francis? 

16.  —        —  of  Richard  of  Chichester  ? 

124  17.      —        —  of  Robert  Grostesle  :  what  claims  did  he  oppost 

125  IS.  What  abuses  did  he  complain  of? 

19.  Name  some  other  eminent  theologians  ? 

126  20.  Who  was  Justiniani  ?  show  his  fortitude  ? 
21.  What  virtues  did  he  possess  ? 

127  22.  When  was  he  made  bishop  ?  how  did  he  conduct  himself? 
23.  Give  the  particulars  of  his  death  ? 

128  24.  What  haa  now  become  common  in  the  Church  ? 
25.  What  were  still  preserved  ? 

129  26.  State  the  testimony  of  Luther? 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  230 

CHAPTER    XIX. — THE    EASTERN   CHURCH. 
PtOE.    QtrE»TION. 

129  1.  In  what  countries  did  this  Church  exist  ? 

2.  By  what  patriarchs  was  it  governed  ? 

3.  Was  all  communion  broken  off  with  the  W.  Church  ?  give  proofs 

to  the  contrary  ? 
4    What  was  the  conduct  of  the  popes? 

130  5.  What  benefits  resulted  from  the  resistance  of  the  E.  Church  ? 
6.  State  the  language  of  the  archbishop  Nechites  ? 

131  7.  What  effect  had  the  crusades  ? 

8.  What  efforts  did  Michael  Paleologus  make  ? 

9.  What  was  done  at  the  council  of  Lyons?  the  result? 

10.  What  measures  were  taken  at  the  council  of  Florence  ? 

11.  Was  the  union  effected? 

132  12.  When  and  by  whom  was  Constantinople  taken  ? 


CHAPTER   XX. ABtJSES   AND   CORRECTIONS. 

1.  What  was  the  grand  evil  of  this  period  ? 

2.  What  was  the  spirit  of  the  court  of  Rome  ? 

3.  What  were  their  maxims  ? 

133  4.  What  followed  from  them  ? 

5.  What  powerful  engine  was  employed  ? 

6.  Who  developed  the  full  extent  of  the  papal  power? 

7.  Over  what  countries  did  he  extend  his  jurisdiction? 

134  8.  How  did  he  manage  the  affairs  of  the  Church  ? 
9.  Who  were  legates  ? 

10.  What  does  the  history  of  Europe  present  during  this  period  ' 

11.  What  contested  elections  took  place? 

135  12.  What  Church  suffered  severely  in  the  13th  century  ?  the  partiaularsf 

136  13.  How  were  the  Italians  enriched  ? 

14.  What  did  the  pope  claim  as  to  the  clergy  who  died  intestate? 

15.  What  taxes  did  he  try  to  lay  on  the  clergy  ? 

137  16.  Were  their  claims  resisted  ? 

17.  How  were  appeals  to  the  pope  carried  on  ?  the  effects  ? 

18.  What  dispensations  were  given?  the  consequence  ? 

138  19.  What  appointments  did  they  claim? 
20.  What  were  plenary  indulgences? 

139  21.  By  whom  was  the  papal  supremacy  chiefly  sustained. 

22.  What  was  the  character  of  the  monks  ? 

23.  How  had  they  degenerated  from  their  predecessors  ? 

24.  Who  were  the  begging  friars  ? 

140  25.  What  does  Richard  of  Armagh  say  of  them? 
26.  What  had  the  monasteries  become  ? 

141  27.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  clergy  ? 

25.  In  what  way  was  penitence  evaded  ? 

142  29.  What  new  office  was  invented  ?  when  ? 

30.  What  was  the  rosary  ? 

31.  What  charms  were  worn? 

32-  What  mode  of  absolution  was  used  by  the  mendicant  friars  ? 

33-  What  abuses  in  relation  to  the  eucharist  were  introduced? 

143  34.  What  was  the  system  of  theological  instruction?  when  was  it  given? 
35.  What  was  the  Book  of  Sentences  ? 

144  36.  What  was  the  text  book  of  the  canonists?  its  character? 
37.  What  effect  had  these  works  on  learning  ? 

145  38.  Was  scripture  still  studied? 

39.  State  the  complaints  of  the  university  of  Pans? 

40.  What  was  to  be  expected  from  this  state  of  things  ? 


240  QU£STIt)XS  ON  PALMER  S  COMPENJ>IOUS 

CHAPTER    XXI. THE  FORKIGN  RKFORMATIOX  :    1517 &C 

Page.  Questio:^. 

146  1.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  power  of  the  popes  ? 

2.  What  was  the  great  schism  ! 

3.  What  councils  were  assemhled  ?  their  effect  ? 

4.  What  reformers  existed  at  this  time  ? 

5.  What  revived  in  the  15th  centurj-? 

147  6.  By  whom  was  the  Reformation  commenced  ?  the  date? 

7.  What  was  his  intention  at  first  ? 

8.  Why  was  he  excommunica'ted  ?  when  ? 

9.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  separation 

148  10.  What  protectors  did  he  find  ? 

11.  What  did  his  piety  call  forth? 

12.  What  system  of  church  government  was  established? 

13.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  2nd  diet  at  Spires? 

14.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Protestant? 

15.  Has  the  Church  of  England  adopted  it? 

16.  What  diet  was  now  convened  ?  its  date  ? 

17.  What  was  the  confession  there  presented  ? 

149  18.  What  was  the  result  of  the  diett 

19.  What  did  the  Protestants  then  do? 

20.  What  conference  was  held  at  Ratisbon  ? 

21.  What  council  was  now  called?  when?  by  whom  attended? 

22.  What  did  the  emperor  do? 

23.  What  was  the  Interim? 

24.  When  did  the  council  of  Trent  assemble?  its  effect? 

150  25.  Whdt  led  to  a  pacification?  its  result  ? 
2Q.  Whether  did  the  Reformation  spread  ? 

27.  What  good  results  followed? 

28.  What  is  said  of  Sweden  ? 

29.  What  error  did  the  Lutherans  fall  into  subsequently? 

30.  What  was  their  condition  in  the  17th  century? 
15131.        —  _        _         _        ISth  century? 

32.  What  party  now  arose?  who  was  its  leader?  the  effects? 

33.  Where  else  did  a  Reformation  begin?  its  author? 

34.  What  were  his  views  and  their  results  ? 

152  35.  What  reformer  succeeded  him?  what  system  did  he  inventl 

36.  What  was  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  France? 

37.  Whose  doctrmes  did  the  party  adopt  ? 

38.  What  edict  was  passed  ?  when  revoked? 

39.  What  revolution  took  place  in  Holland  ? 

40.  Whose  system  was  adopted  ? 

41.  What  is  to  be  observed  of  the  reformed  communities? 

153  42.  State  the  early  life  of  Luther?  what  order  did  he  enter? 

43.  To  what  studies  did  he  apply  himself? 

44.  Why  did  he  go  to  Rome?  the  effect  ? 

45.  What  led  him  to  examine  deeply  into  existing  abuses  ?    t 

46.  How  did  he  at  first  conduct  the  controversy  ? 

47.  Did  he  voluntarily  leave  the  Church  of  Rome  ? 

154  48.  To  what  diet  was  he  called  ?  show  his  firmness? 

49.  Whither  was  he  conveyed  ?  in  what  did  he  employ  himself? 

50.  Why  did  he  leave  his  retreat  ? 

51.  What  was  his  influence  ?  what  works  did  he  compose? 

52.  Who  succeeded  Luther  ?  what  were  his  attainments  ? 

53.  How  was  he  brought  over  ? 

54.  Name  some  of  his  writings? 

ce*  ^^"^  ^^^'^  ^^'^^  ^^  remarkable  ?  was  he  successful  ? 
56.  What  is  said  of  the  early  life  of  Calvin  ? 


ECCLESIASTICAL  ITISTOHY.  241 

Page.  Questiow. 

155  57.  To  what  prolession  did  he  apply  himself? 

68.  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

69.  What  work  did  he  publish? 

60.  In  what  town  did  he  settle?  why? 

61.  What  executions  did  he  make?  the  result? 

156  62.  When  was  he  recalled?  what  did  he  establish? 

63.  What  did  he  oppose?  state  his  influence  ? 

64.  What  was  his  character? 

65.  Was  he  ever  in  holy  orders  ? 

66.  W^hat  excuse  is  given  by  his  supporters  ? 

67.  Is  it  safely  to  be  relied  on  ? 

68.  Where  was  Zuiiigle  born  ?  where  did  he  study  ? 

69.  Where  was  he  made  pastor? 

70.  What  effect  did  his  studies  produce  ? 

71.  To  what  church  was  he  appointed  ?  and  the  consequence? 

157  72.  What  controversies  ensued  ?  the  issue  ? 

73.  What  reform's  did  he  effect  ? 

74.  What  dispute  had  he  with  Luther? 


CHAPTER    XXII. OJV   THE    BRITISH   CHURCHES. 

1.  How  long  had  the  church  in  Britain  existed  ? 

2.  How  long  was  it  independent  of  the  Romish  see  ? 

3.  How  was  the  jurisdiction  obtained  ; 

158  4.  Were  appeals  at  first  allowed  ? 

5.  When  was  the  papal  authority  fully  established  ? 

6.  What  was  the  state  of  religion  ? 

7.  What  efforts  did  Wickliffe  make? 

8.  What  led  to  the  Reformation  in  England  ? 

9.  Give  the  history  of  the  proceedings? 

159  10,  To  what  expedient  did  Henry  resort? 

11.  What  was  the  decision?  and  the  result? 

12.  What  did  the  convocation  declare  ? 

13.  What  exactions  were  abolished  ?  the  date? 

14.  What  was  enacted  as  to  the  election  &c.  of  bishops  ? 

15.  —  —         as  to  the  right  of  appeal?  as  to  licences,  &C.&C.? 

160  16.  Was  this  agreed  to  by  the  Church  of  England?   wheu  and  where? 

17.  What  work  was  pubhshed  in  1537?  what  in  1543  ? 

18.  What  doctrine  was  disclaimed  ?  what  abuses  forbidden  ? 

19.  What  superstitions  were  prohibited  ? 

20.  What  penal  laws  were  passed  ?  when  ? 

21.  What  was  Henry  acknowledged  to  be? 

161  22.  What  did  he  do  in  virtue  thereof?  the  result  ? 

23.  Who  succeeded  Henry  ?  the  date  ? 

24.  What  reforms  were  made  ?  by  whose  authority  ? 

25.  What  was  done  with  the  public  prayers  ? 

26.  How  did  the  popes  now  regard  England  ? 

27.  Did  the  Church  in  England  separate  from  the  communion  of  the 

W.  Church? 

28.  What  was  the  opinion  of  the  papal  party  ? 

29.  Who  succeeded  Edward?   the  date? 

162  30.  Who  became  ascendant? 

31.  How  many  bishops  were  expelled? 

32.  How  replaced? 

33.  Had  the  pope  any  right  of  jurisdiction  ?  why  not? 

34.  What  did  the  parliament  do  ?  what  the  pope  ? 

35.  What  iierse';ution  arose  ?  relate  the  particulars? 

21 


242  QUESTIONS  o.\  p.^lmer's  COMPFNDIOUS 

Page.  Question. 

162  36.  Who  succeeded  Mary  ?  the  date  ? 
37.  What  laws  were  re-enacted  ? 

163  38.  What  was  done  with  the  popish  intruders? 

39.  What  was  the  view  of  the  clergy  generally? 

40.  What  forniulary  was  published  {  when  ? 

41.  What  state  of  things  now  existed  ? 

42.  What  was  issued  by  the  pope  ?  when  ? 

43.  What  was  the  effect  on  the  papists  ? 

44.  When  was  the  Romish  separation  commenced  ? 

164  45.  When  did  they  obtain  bishops? 

46.  What  other  separation  took  place? 

47.  Give  an  account  of  the  authors? 

48.  What  did  they  say  of  the  Church? 

49.  When  did  their  numbers  increase  ?  and  why  ? 

50.  What  was  enacted  by  the  parliament  ? 

51.  Under  whom  was  the  Church  restored  ? 

165  52.  What  was  the  course  of  James  II.  ?  his  fate? 
53.  Who  were  the  non-jurors? 

64.  What  controversy  was  occasioned  V 

65.  Who  was  Hoadly  ?  and  what  did  he  maintain  ? 

66.  What  notice  did  the  convocation  take  ?  the  issue? 

57.  By  whom  was  he  protected  ? 

58.  What  attacks  were  made  on  subscription? 

166  59.  Who  founded  the  Methodists?  the  design?  the  resukf 

60.  From  what  causes  did  the  Church  suffer  ? 

61.  What  dangers  aroused  it  to  exertion? 

62.  What  revival  ensued?  how  manifested? 

63.  What  has  continued  to  stimulate  the  Church? 

64.  What  enemies  has  she  to  encounter  at  the  present  tirtie? 

167  65.  How  long  was  the  Church  of  Ireland  Independent? 

66.  When  was  a  legate  sent  there?  and  the  pall  received? 

67.  When  was  the  papal  jurisdiction  abolished  ? 

68.  What  was  done  under  Mary  ? 

69.  What  under  Elizabeth? 

70.  How  were  the  Irish  clergy  affected  ? 

71 .  What  formularies  of  faith  were  adopted  ?  the  dates  ? 

168  72.  Whom  did  the  pope  send  to  Ireland  ? 

73.  What  was  the  effect  on  the  people  ? 

74.  What  instances  are  given  in  the  text  ? 

169  75.  What  orders  did  Maceogan  give  ? 

76.  What  advantage  was  taken  of  the  superstition  of  the  Irish? 

170  77.  What  was  the  result  of  these  rebellions  ? 

78.  What  did  James  I.  forbid  ? 

79.  What  broke  out  under  Charles  I.  ? 

80.  By  whom  was  the  Church  persecuted  ? 

81.  What  has  been  its  state  recently  ? 

82.  What  were  lately  suppressed  ? 

83.  When  did  Scotland  become  subject  to  the  pope? 

171  84.  By  whom  was  the  Reformation  introduced  ?  when? 

85.  What  was  established  under  Melville  ?  the  date  ? 

86.  When  did  these  disorders  cease? 

87.  Who  became  predominant  afterwards? 

88.  What  was  done  at  the  restoration  ? 

89.  —  —         after  the  accession  of  William  ?  why  ? 

90.  How  was  the  Church  subsequently  treated  ? 

91.  W^hen  and  how  was  the  Church  planted  bv  England  in  N.  America! 

92.  What  hindered  its  growth  ? 

172  93   Who  was  the  first  bishop  after  the  independence  of  the  U.  States  ? 


ECCLESIASTICAL   HISTORY.  243 

Page.  Question. 
172  94.  "WTio  were  afterwards  consecrated? 

95.  What  schisniatical  and  spurious  episcopacies  exist  ? 

96.  What  is  the  present  state  of  the  American  Church? 

97.  In  what  English  possessions  have  bishoprics  been  established  ? 


CHAPTER   XXIir. — FRUITS   OF   FAITH   IN  THE   BRITISH   CHURCHES 

1.  Who  stands  prominent  in  the  list  of  martyrs  ? 

2.  Where  did  he  study  ? 

173  3.  What  is  said  of  his  preaching?  and  knowledge? 

4.  Why  did  he  change  his  opinions  on  the  Eucharist  ?  and  when? 
6.  Of  what  see  was  he  consecrated  bishop  ? 
6.  Show  his  conscientiousness  ? 

174  7.  To  what  see  was  he  promoted  ?  what  was  his  character  ? 

8.  State  his  devotion  :  his  concern  for  the  poor  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  his  sermon  on  charity  and  its  effects  on  the  king  ? 

175  10.  What  institutions  were  founded  in  consequence  ? 

11.  What  happened  on  the  accession  of  Mary  ? 

12.  Show  his  constancy  in  prison? 

176  13.  What  did  his  chaplain  recommend  ? 

14.  State  his  reply:  and  his  charge  ? 

177  15.  What  was  the  effect  ? 

16.  Whither  was  he  removed  and  with  whom  ? 

17.  Before  whom  was  he  examined  ?  what  was  his  conduct  ? 

15.  What  was  the  semtence  ? 

19.  How  did  he  behave  on  the  eve  of  his  death  ? 

178  20.    —    and  on  the  morn  of  his  execution  ? 

21.  What  did  he  say  to  Latimer  ?  what  to  the  sermon? 

22.  How  did  he  behave  at  the  stake  ? 

23.  What  did  Latimer  say  ? 

179  24.  Was  he  long  in  suffering?  was  Ridley? 

25.  W^hat  may  be  said  of  his  death  ? 

26.  What  is  said  of  Hooker's  early  days? 

180  27.  WTio  provided  for  his  education? 

28.  To  what  college  was  he  sent  ? 

29.  ^Vhat  is  said  of  his  devotion  ?  his  virtue  ?  his  conduct  ? 

30.  What  appointments  did  he  receive? 

181  31.  By  what  was  the  Church  troubled  ? 

32.  Who  was  Hooker's  opponent?  for  what  reason? 

33.  Who  supported  Hooker  ? 

34.  What  great  work  did  Hooker  undertake  ?  where  was  it  writtea  f 

35.  What  did  the  pope  say  of  it  ? 

182  36.  To  what  parish  was  he  now  appointed  ?  what  of  his  life  ? 

37.  What  is  said  of  his  attention  to  his  duties  ? 

38.  What  friend  attended  him  in  his  last  illness  ? 

183  39.  On  what  did  he  profess  to  rely  for  justification? 

40.  What  did  he  say  in  his  last  moments  ? 

41.  What  is  said  of  the  education,  &c.  of  Nicholas  Ferrar? 

184  42.  What  did  he  do  while  abroad  ? 

43.  What  employment  did  he  hold  ? 

44.  What  ofter  did  he  decline  ? 

45.  Of  what  body  was  he  elected  a  member  ? 

46.  Whither  did  he  retire  and  with  whom  ? 

47.  What  was  he  ordained  :  and  what  was  his  vow? 

48.  What  offers  did  he  refuse  ?  why  ? 
186  49.  What  edifice  was  repaired  ? 

60.  What  did  he  establish  ;  in  what  was  he  diligent  ? 


244  QUESTIONS  ON  PALMER  S  COMPENDIOUS 

Page.  Question. 

186  51.  What  was  the  routine  on  Sundays? 
52.  What  on  week  days  ? 

187  53.  To  what  were  their  leisure  hours  devoted  ? 

54.  Who  visited  the  Society?  what  did  he  say  of  it? 

55.  What  king  also  visited  them? 

188  56.  Describe  the  end  of  Ferrar  ? 

57.  What  is  said  of  the  early  days  of  Hammond  ? 

58.  —      —      of  his  learning? 

59.  Where  was  he  settled  ?  what  of  his  duties  ? 

60.  Why  was  he  obliged  to  leave  ? 

189  61.  What  persecutions  did  he  suffer? 

62.  What  is  said  of  his  habits  and  devotion? 

63.  —        —    of  his  forgiveness  and  humility?  his  alms? 

190  64.  At  what  time  did  he  die  ? 

65.  What  is  said  of  the  ordination  and  resolutions  of  bishop  Wilson? 

66.  Who  was  his  patron?  how  did  he  benefit  him  ? 

191  67.  To  what  see  was  he  appointed? 

68.  Whence  did  he  obtain  aid  in  his  duties  ? 

69.  What  was  the  state  of  his  diocese? 

70.  To  what  did  he  direct  his  attention  ? 

71.  What  is  said  of  his  charity  ? 

192  72.  What  provision  did  he  make  for  the  poor? 

73.  What  did  he  improve  ? 

74.  What  is  said  of  his  diligence  in  preaching,  &c.? 

75.  How  did  he  attend  to  the  clergy  ? 

76.  What  did  he  address  to  them  f 

193  77.  What  is  said  of  his  devotion?  of  his  conversation? 
78.  What  exercise  of  discipline  did  he  inflict?  the  result? 

194  79.  State  the  particulars  of  his  death? 

80.  Mention  some  other  worthies  ? 

81.  Which  are  the  oldest  Societies  in  the  Church  of  England  for  the  dif- 

fusion of  the  Gospel  ? 

82.  Who  was  their  chief  founder  ? 

83.  What  is  the  object  of  the  Society  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel? 

195  84.  —        —  of  that  for  promoting  Christian  knowledge? 
85.  When  was  the  Church  Missionary  Society  formed  ? 


CHAPTER   XXIV. — THE   ROMAN  CHURCHES. 

1.  What  Churches  remained  under  the  papal  jurisdiction? 

2.  When  did  the  council  of  Trent  close  ? 

3.  What  errors  did  it  establish? 

196  4.  How  were  its  decrees  received  ? 

5.  Was  this  according  to  primitive  usage  ? 

6.  To  what  authority  is  this  council  entitled  ? 

7.  When  was  the  Society  of  Jesuits  established? 

8.  What  disputes  arose  in  the  Romish  Church  ? 

9.  What  controversy  was  introduced  by  Jansenius  ? 

197  10.  Where  did  his  doctrines  find  their  chief  support? 

11.  What  partial  reformation  took  place  in  Germany? 

12.  What  monarch  advocated  it  ?  the  result? 

13.  What  other  countries  imitated  him? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  Jansenists  in  Holland  ? 

15.  Who  chiefly  opposed  them  ? 

198  16.  Whence  arises  their  power  ?  what  made  them  popular? 
17.  What  are  their  characteristics?  who  exposed  them? 

199  18.  When  were  they  suppressed  ?  when  revived? 


ECCLESIASTICAL    HISTORY.  245 

Page.  Question. 

199  19.  What  spirk  long  existed  in  France  ? 

20.  What  effect  had  the  Revolution? 

21.  What  pretended  reorganization  took  place?  the  issue? 

22.  What  negotiations  did  Buonaparte  carry  on  and  what  was  the  result ' 

200  23., What  did  he  afterwards  extinguish?  permanently? 

24.  What  was  done  with  the  monasteries  ? 

25.  What  actual  temporal  power  has  the  pope  now  ? 

26.  Give  an  account  of  the  labours  of  Francis  Xavier  ? 

27.  —        —  of  the  establishment  of  the  Romish  Church  in  China? 
20128.      —        —  —    among  the  Syrian  Christians  of  India? 

29.  —        —  —    in  South  America  ? 

30.  What  abuses  did  the  council  of  Trent  reform  ? 

31.  What  mode  of  argument  was  adopted  in  the  17th  century  ? 

32.  What  effect  had  it  ? 

33.  What  influence  have  the  Jesuits  produced  on  morality? 

CHAPTER   XXV. FRUITS   OF   FAITH   IN  THE   ROMAl>f  CHURCHES. 

202    1.  What  may  still  be  produced  in  these  Churches? 

2.  What  are  we  hence  guarded  against? 

3.  Where  was  Francis  Xavier  educated  ?  when  ordained  ? 

4.  What  application  was  made  to  the  pope  ? 

5.  Whither  was  Xavier  sent?  how  did  he  employ  himself  on  the  voyage 

6.  Where  did  he  land>?  what  was  the  state  of  the  residents? 

7.  WliHt  measures  did  he  adopt  ? 

204  8.  What  good  effect  was  produced  ? 

9    Among  whom  did  he  then  labour?  the  result? 
10.  To  what  kingdom  did  he  then  proceed? 

205  11.  What  other  places  did  he  visit  ?  what  islands? 

12.  What  did  he  say  of  his  dangers? 

13.  To  what  countries  did  he  next  go?  state  his  quickness  in  learning 

14.  Where  did  he  next  purpose  going? 

206  15.  Who  was  Charles  Borromeo  ?  what  were  his  connexions? 

16.  What  was  he  made  ?  what  did  he  found  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  his  household  ?  what  urged  him  to  reform  ? 

207  18.  Where  did  he  commence? 

19.  What  did  he  strive  to  exemplify  ? 

208  20.  How  did  he  show  his  liberality"? 

21.  In  what  condition  was  his  diocese  ? 

22.  What  discipline  was  introduced  ? 

23.  What  attempt  was  made,  and  by  whom? 

24.  How  did  he  employ  his  revenues? 

209  25.  What  of  his  visitations?  his  habits  of  pietv?  his  virtues? 

210  26.  What  of  the  early  life  of  Francis  de  Sales"? 

27.  For  what  was  he  "intended  ?  what  profession  did  he  choose  ? 

28.  What  is  said  of  his  preaching  ? 

211  29.  Where  was  he  appointed  to  labour?  what  of  his  influence? 
30.  When  was  he  appointed  bishop?  state  his  plan  of  life  ? 

212  31.  Show  his  attention  to  his  duties  ? 

213  32.     —    his  disinterestedness,  and  concientiousness? 
33.  What  was  the  effect  of  his  preaching  at  Paris  ? 

214  34.  What  is  said  of  his  death? 

35.  What  of  the  early  life  of  Vincent  de  Paul? 

36.  Wliat  happened  to  him  ?  how  did  he  endure  his  captivity  ? 

215  37.  What  effect  had  he  on  his  owner  ? 

38.  What  employment  had  he  on  returning  to  France? 
•216  39.  Wliat  Benevolent  Societies  did  he  found? 
40.  What  vir'ues  did  he  exhibit  ? 
21* 


246  QUESTIONS  ON  PALMEr's  COMPENDIOUS,  kC. 

CHAPTER   XXVI. THE   ORIEJVTAL.   CHURCHES. 

Page.  Question. 

216  1.  What  of  the  faith  and  discipline  of  the  Greek  Churches  ? 
2.  What  did  the  Lutherans  seek  ? 

217  3.  What  intercourse  was  had  with  the  English  Church? 

4.  What  error  was  embraced  by  some  in  the  Greek  Church  ?  when? 

5.  When  did  the  Russian  Church  become  independent? 

6.  What  changes  did  Peter  the  Great  make  ? 

7.  What  change  has  been  made  iu  Greece  ? 

8.  What  accession  has  the  Greek  Church  gained  ? 

CHAPTER   XXVII. RISE   AND   PROGRESS   OF   INFIDET^ITY. 

218  1.  Who  was  the  leader  among  the  infidel  party  ?  to  what  was  his  life 
2.  What  was  the  watchword  of  the  party  ?  [devoted  i 

219  3.  What  unbelievers  had  England  produced  ? 

4.  What  natural  abilities  had  Voltaire  ? 

5.  What  was  his  private  character  ? 

6.  What  design  did  he  form  ?  whose  aid  did  he  obtain  ? 

220  7.  What  was  the  object  of  this  association  ? 

8.  What  words  did  they  make  use  of? 

9.  What  was  the  principal  engine  they  used  ?  its  character  ? 
10.  What  circulation  had  it? 

221  11.  What  supporters  did  infidelity  obtain? 
12.  What  was  th€  state  of  morals  in  France  ? 

222  13.  What  means  were  used  to  disseminate  infidelity  among  the  low? 

14.  Were  supporters  found  among  the  clergy  ?  why  ? 

15.  What  was  the  death  of  Voltaire  ? 

223  16.  What  did  the  seed  produce  ? 

17.  What  effect  had  it  upon  the  Church  ? 

18.  Are  the  evils  still  experienced  in  France? 

224  19.  What  form  has  unbelief  assumed  in  Germany? 

20.  Describe  its  characteristics? 

21.  What  error  has  been  widely  spread  in  England  ? 

225  22.  What  is  the  present  garb  of  infidelity? 

23.  What  is  the  spirit  of  this  age  ? 

24.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  Church  ? 


CHAPTER   XXVHI.— CONCLUSION. 

1.  What  truth  is  clear  through  the  progress  of  the  Church? 

2.  What  great  doctrine  has  been  steadily  preserved  ? 
220    3.  What  creeds  are  universally  accepted  ? 

4.  Whom  do  all  Churches  confess  ? 

5.  What  do  they  allow  as  to  the  condition  of  man? 

6.  What  do  they  believe  as  to  Divine  grace  ? 

7.  —  —         as  to  the  judgment  to  come  ? 

8.  —  —         as  to  the  Holy  Scriptures? 

9.  What  of  the  Sacraments  and  of  the  Apostolic  succession? 

10.  To  what  does  the  differences  between  them  chiefly  relate  ? 

11.  What  truths  do  many  schismatics  retain? 

12.  What  union  was  enjoined  by  our  Lord  ? 

13.  What  has  been  the  main  cause  of  present  divisions  ? 

14.  On  what  way  do  the  Romish  superstitions  chiefly  depend  ? 

15.  What  else  have  we  to  deplore  besides  disunions 

16.  What  has  every  Church  and  age  to  fear  ? 

17.  What  are  opposite  evils  to  the  facts  of  usurpation  and  bigotry? 

18.  What  Apostolic  precept  must  be  constantly  remembered  f 

19.  What  is  there  to  console  us  in  the  historv  of  the  Church? 


INDEX 


African  Churches,  26. 

Agobard,  80. 

Albigenses,  heretics,  114. 

Alexandria,  Church  of,  8. 

Alfred,  king,  95. 

Alsatia,  converted,  76. 

Ambrose,  60. 

America,  Church  of,  171. 

Ammon,  53. 

Amorium,  martyrs  of,  93. 

Anabaptists,  164. 

Anselm,  118-120. 

Antioch,  council  of,  12,  25,  36. 

Antony,  51. 

Apollinaris,  heretic,  41. 

Arabians,  converted,  45. 

Arianism,  34-40. 

Ariminum,  synod  of,  39. 

Arius,  heretic,  34,  35,  36. 

Armenia,  34,  111. 

Artemon,  12. 

Articles  of  the  English  Church, 

163. 
Asia  Minor,  7,  15-18. 
Athanasius,  35-40. 
Augsburg,  diet  of,  148. 
Augsburg,  confession  of,  148, 151. 
Augustine,  62. 

Augustine,  of  Canterbury,  46. 
Baptism,  27  ;  of  infants,  ibid. 
Baptists,  164. 
Basil  the  Great,  58. 
Basire,  archdeacon,  217. 
Batavians,  converted,  48. 
Bavaria,  converted,  75. 
Bede,  venerable,  85. 
Benedict,  63. 

Benedict  of  Anianum,  102. 
Berengarius,  heretic,  75,  81 


Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  121. 

Bishops,  33. 

Bohemia,  converted,  75. 

Boniface,  88-90. 

Borromeo,  cardinal,  205-210. 

Bossuet,  201. 

Bray,  Dr.  194. 

Brienne,  cardinal  de,  222. 

Bulgaria,  converted,  76. 

Buonaparte,  199. 

Calvin,  155. 

Canon  law,  143. 

Carinthia,  converted,  75. 

Carloman,  87. 

Celibacy  of  clergy,  72. 

Chalcedon,  synod  of,  44. 

Charlemagne,  emperor,  75,  87. 

Charles  I.,  king,  187,  189,  217. 

China,    Christianity    introduced 

112. 
Chrysostom,  60, 
Clement  of  Rome,  25. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  23. 
Columban,  47,  139. 
Communion  in  one  kind,  introduc 

ed,  142;  of  the  sick,  34. 
Confession,  32,  81, 142. 
Confirmation,  28. 
Congo,  converted,  112. 
Constantino  the  Great,  10. 
Constantinople,  patriarch  of,  64, 

104. 
Constantinople,  I.  synod  of,  41. 
Constantinople,  II.  synod  of,  45. 
Constantinople,    III.  synod    of 

47. 
Constantinople,  synod  of,  in  754, 

79. 
Cornelius  of  Rome,  26 


248 


Courland,  converted,  112. 
Cranmer,    archbishop,    159,    162, 

173,  177. 
Creeds,  30;  Apostles',  ibid.  Nicene, 
3). 

Cyprian,  23,  26. 

Cj'ril  of  Alexandria,  43. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  57. 

Cyrillus  Lucaris,  217. 

[)'Alembert,  220. 

Dalniatia,  converted,  76. 

Dticretals,  spurious,  103,  104. 

Denmark,  Christianity  introduc- 
ed, 70. 

Diocletian,  15. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  23. 

Dionysius  of  Corinth,  25. 

Dioscorus,  heretic,  44. 

Discipline  of  the  scourge,  intro- 
duced, 141. 

Divisions    of  Churches,   26,  27, 
65.  104-105. 

Domitian,  15. 

Donalists,  26. 

Edessa,  Church  of,  8. 

Elevation  of  eucharist,  introduc- 
ed, 142. 

Elipandus,  heretic,  77. 

Enjrland,   Reformation   in,    159- 
^63. 

Ephesus,  8,  15. 

Epiiesus,  synod  of,  43. 

Episcopacy,  8,  33. 

Ethiopia,  converted,  41, 

Eucharist,  22,  29,  80,  142. 

Eunomius,  heretic,  59, 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  56. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  36. 

Eutychcs,  heretics,  44. 

Excommunication,  abused,  103. 

Ferrar,  Nicholas,  183-187. 

Fidus  of  Meissen,  95. 

P'lorence,  synod  of,  131. 

France,  Reformation  in,  152. 

Francis  of  Assisium,  123. 

Frankfort,    synod,    against    wor- 
ship  of  images,  79. 

Franks,  converted,  45,  48. 

Frederick,  II.  220, 

Friars,  begging,  139. 

Friesland,  Christianity  introduc- 
cd,  25. 


Frumentius,  41. 

Gallican  Church,  199. 

Gall,  48. 

Georgia,  converted,  41. 

Germany,  Reformation  there,  147, 
&c. 

Gnostics,  13,  23. 

Goa,  Christianity  there,  200,  201, 

Goths,  converted,  41. 

Gratian,  143. 

Greece,  Church  of,  217. 

Gregory  the  Grea.t,  46. 

Gregory  the  Illuminator,  34. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  58. 

Gregory  Thavimaturgus,  23. 

Gregory  of  Utrecht,  91. 

Grosteste,  bishop,  124. 

Hammond,  188-190. 

Henry  VIII.  158-161. 

Hervey,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
84. 

Hesse,Christianity  introduced,  75. 

Hilary  of  Poictiers.  39. 

Hoadly,  heretic,  165. 

Holland,  Reformation  in,  151. 

Homobonus,  123. 

Homoiision,  35. 

Honorius  of  Rome,  heretics,  47. 

Hooker,  179-183, 

Hungary,  converted,  76. 

Inconoclasts,  78. 

Ignatius,  20. 

Image-worship,  78-80, 

Independents  or  Brownists,  164. 

India,  conversions  in,  202,  203. 

Indulgences,  141. 

Interim,  the,  149. 

Invocation  of  saints,  68,  101, 110 

Ireland,  converted,  45. 

Ireland,  Church  of  169;  Refor- 
mation there,  169;  schism  of 
Romanists,  170,  171. 

Irenceus,  9,  11,  23. 

Jansenists,  196, 

Japan,  Christianity  there,  205. 

Jerome,  62. 

Jesuits,  196,  193,  199,  200,  202, 

John,  apostle,  15, 

John  Chrysostom,  60. 

Julius  of  Rome,  37,  64. 

Justin  Martyr,  9,  23. 

Justiniani,  Laurence,    125-128. 


INDEX. 


249 


Kempis,  Thomas  k,  125. 

Kilian,  48. 

Lanfranc,  118. 

Latimer,  bishop,  177-179. 

Laud,  archbishop,  185,  188. 

Lebuin,  92. 

Leo  the  Great,  44,  63. 

Libaims,  converted,  45. 

Lithuania,  converted,  112. 

Liturg-y,  language  of,  71,  72,  101. 

Liturgies,  3L 

Livonia,  converted.  111. 

Lord's  supper.     See  Eucharist. 

Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  39,  56. 

Luitprand,  87. 

Luther,  147,  153. 

his  opinion  of  the  Church, 

128. 
Lyra,  125. 

Macedonius,  heretic,  41. 
Mahomet,  47. 
Maronites,  converted.  111. 
Marriage,  22;  of  clergy,  72,  160. 
Martin  of  Tours,  41,57. 
Melancthon,  154. 
Meletius  of  Antioch,  57. 
Mendicants,  139. 
Menezes,  archbishop,  201. 
Methodists,  166. 
Monastic  life,  4^   ik.c. 
Monks,   their  corruptions,     139- 

141. 
Monophy sites,  heretics,  44. 
Monothelites,  heretics,  46. 
Nechites,  130. 
Nectarius,  32. 
Nero,  14. 

Nestorius,  heretic,  43. 
Nice,  synod  of,  35. 
Nice,  synod  for  images,  79. 
Nicene  Creed,  35. 
Nilus  of  Calabria,  97-99. 
Noetus,  12. 
Non-jurors,  165. 
Normans,  converted,  76. 
Novatians,  26. 
Ockham,  125. 
Odo.  ofCIugny,  102. 
Origen,  10,  23. 
Otto  of  Bamberg,  108-110. 
Oxford,  University  of,  96,  143. 
Pachomius,  53. 


Papists,  their  separation  from  tha 
Churches  of  England  and  Ire- 
land, 163,  168-170. 
Paschasius  Radbert,  80. 
Patrick,  45. 
Paul,  apostle,  8,  15. 
Paul,  Vincent  do,  214-216. 
Paul  of  Samosata,  12. 
Paulicians,  heretics,  77. 
Pelagius,  heretic,  42. 
Penitence,  32,  70,  141. 
Penitentiaries,  32. 
Peter,  apostle,  6,  8,  15. 
Peter  Lombard,  123,  143. 
Photinus,  heretic,  41. 
Pictures  of  saints,  70. 
Pilgrimages,  70. 
Pliny,  8,  12. 
Poland,  converted,  76. 
Polycarp,  16-20. 
Pomerania,  converted,  107-110. 
Popes,  temporal  power  of,  103, 133 
—138;  taxes  imposed  by  them, 
135-138 ;  appeals  to  them,  137  ; 
dispensations,  137  ;  usurpations 
of  patron  age,  138. 
Praxeas,  12. 

Prayers  for  the  dead,  73,  74. 
Procession  of  Holy  Spirit,  113. 
Protestants,  origin  of  the  term, 

148. 
Prussia,  converted.  111. 
Purgatory,  73,  113,  114. 
Puritans,  origin  of,  164. 
Rationalism    in    Germany,     151, 

224. 
Ratisbon,  conference  of,  149 
Relics,  69. 

Richard  of  Chicliester,  123. 
Ridley,  martyr,  172-179. 
Roman  Church,  7  ;  its  charity,  26 
Rome,  patriarchate  of,  64 ;  jur)8 
diction   of,   its    origin   and    in 
crease,  64-66, 1 1 6, 1 30, 1 33,  &c 
Rosary,  invented,  142. 
Rugen,  isle  of,  converted,  110. 
Russia,  converted,  76  ;  Church  ol 

217. 
Sabellius,  12. 

Sales,  Frances  de,  210-214. 
Saracens,  their  ravages,  74.  75 
Sardica,  synod  of,  37,  64. 


250 


INDEX. 


Scapulary,  invented,  142. 
Scotland,  Reformation  there,  170  ; 

Presbyterian  schism,  171. 
Simeon  Stylites,  55. 
Smalcald,  league  of,  149. 
Smyrna,  16. 
Society  for  promoting  Christian 

Knowledge,  194 ;   for  propaga- 

ting  the  Gospel,  195 ;  Church 

Missionary,  195. 
Stephen  of  Rome,  26. 
Suevi,  converted,  48. 
Switzerland,  converted,  48. 
Switzerland,    reformation    there, 

151. 
Tacitus,  8,  14. 
Tartarv,  Christianity  introduced, 

112.' 
Tertullian,  9,  23. 
Thaddaeus,  apostle,  8. 
Theodotus,  heretic,  12. 


Thuringia,  Christianity  introdn 

ced,  75. 
Transubstantiation,  81,  116. 
Travancore,  converted,  204. 
Trent,  council  of,  162,  196,  201 
Trosle,  syod  of,  84. 
Tyre,  synod  of,  36. 
Universities,  143. 
Unknown  language,  in  tlie  Litur 

gy.     See  Liturgy. 
Victor,  12,  25. 

Virgin,office  in  honour  of  her,  I4k' 
Voltaire,  218-222. 
Westphalia,  converted,  48. 
Whitgifl,  archbishop,  181. 
Wickliffe,  146,  158. 
Willibrord,  48. 
Wilson,  bishop,  190-194. 
Wesley,  166. 
Xavier,  200,  202-205. 
Zuingle.  151,  id6. 


EXPLANATION  OF  DIFFICULT  WORDS. 


Alh,  a  vestment  of  the  clergy. 

Almoner,  a  person  who  distributes  alms. 

Amphitheatre,  a  place  for  public  amusements. 

Anathema,  excommunication,  the  severest  censure  of  the  Church. 

{Annates,  the  first  year's  income  of  a  benefice.] 

Ascetics,  devout  persons,  given  up  to  a  life  of  religion. 

Asiarch,  the  principal  heathen  priest  of  Asia  Minor. 

Baptistery,  a  place  for  administering  baptism. 

Canons,  ecclesiastical  laws  made  by  synods,  also  certain  of  the  clergy. 

Catholic,  universal,  or  universally  received. 

Convocation,  an  assembly  of  the  clergy. 

Council,  an  assembly  of  bishops. 

Heresy,  an  obstinate  denial  or  perversion  of  some  article  of  the  faith. 

Iconoclasts,  image-breakers. 

Irenarch,  a  magistrate  who  watched  over  the  public  peace. 

[Legate,  an  ambassador  of  the  Pope,  generally  a  cardinal.] 

[Mandate,  a  command  to  the  patron  of  a  benefice  to  bestow  it  on  a  par. 
ticukr  person.] 

Matins,  morning  service. 

Metropolitan,  a  bishop  v*rho  has  the  chief  authority  amongst  the  bish- 
ops of  a  province. 

[Nuncio,  a  messenger  of  the  Pope.] 

Oratory,  a  private  chapel. 

(Ecumenical  Synod,  an  assembly  of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Orisons,  prayers. 

Pall,  an  ornament  worn  originally  by  Patriarchs,  afterwards  by  m«- 
tropolitans. 

Patriarch,  a  bishop  who  has  authority  over  metropolitans. 

Proconsul,  a  Roman  governor. 

Schis7n,  a  crimiiJ=>l  division  in  the  Church,  or  a  voluntary  separation 
trom  it 

Synod,  an  assembly  of  bishops. 

Temporalities,  tlie  property  of  the  Church. 

Vigil,  watching  at  night  with  prayer. 


LIST  OF  WORKS  ON  CHURCH  HISTORY,  MOSTLY  OF  A  POPU 
LAR  CHARACTER,  WHICH  MAY  BE  PROFITABLY  READ  B^ 
THOSE  WHO  DESIRE  FULLER  INFORMATION  THAN  THIS 
COMPENDIUM  AFFORDS. 

On  the  EARLY  CHURCH.     Burton's  History  of  the  Church  in  the 
Fii-st  three  Centuries,  12mo.     An  American  edition. 
R.  W.  Evans'  Biography  of  the  Early  Church,  2  vols.  12mf 
forming  part  of  Rivington's  Theological  Library,  LondoB 
A  delightful  book,  well  worthy  of  re-publication. 
Burton's  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Church  in  the  Firsv 

Century,  8vo,  London. 
Burton's  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Church  in  the  Second 
and  Third  Centuries,  8vo.  London.     Addressed  to  theologi- 
cal students,  and  admirably  adapted  for  their  use,  and  that 
of  clergymen. 
On  the  ENGLISH  CHURCH.     T.  V.  Short's  History  of  the  Church 
of  England,  second  edition,  8vo.  London. 
Carwithen's  History   of  the  Church  of  England,  3  vols.  8>^ 
London. 
On  the  REFORMATION.     Le  Bas'  Life  of  WicHf,  12mo. 

Le  Bas'  Life  of  Cranmer,  2vols.  12mo. 
Le  Bas'  Life  of  Jewel,  12mo. 
Le  Bas'  Life  of  Laud,  12mo. 
Of  this  scries,  forming  part  of  Rivington's  Theological  Li- 
brary, only  tlie  first  three  volumes  have  been  re-published  in 
this  country,  in  Harper's  Theological  Library.     The  others, 
not  at  all  inferior  in  value,  are  necessary  to  complete  tho 
view  of  the  English  Reformation  in  its  successive  stages. 
Blunt's  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England, 
12ino.     An  American  edition. 
On  the  AMERICAN  CHURCH.     White's  Memoirs  of  the  Protest. 
ant  Episcopal  Church,  second  edition,  8vo.     Swords. 
Chandler's  Life  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  12mo.     Swords. 
McVickar's  Life  of  Bisliop  Hobart,  12mo. 
Hawks'   Histories  of  the  Church  in  Virginia  and  Maryland, 
2  vols.  8vo.     New- York. 


DATE  DUE 

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PRINTED  IN  USA. 

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A  compendious  ecclesiastical  history, 

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